<p>The proteasome is a multi-subunit protease complex responsible for most of the non-lysosomal protein turnover in eukaryotic cells. This degradation process can be conducted dependent or independent of ubiquitination as different isoforms with different substrate preferences coexist in the cell. Proteasomal activity declines during aging due to a decreased expression of proteasome subunits, complex disassembly, and oxidative stress. This malfunction leads to protein accumulation, subsequent aggregation, and ultimately diseased states. Considering the shared feature of aggregation and accumulation of intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs) in age-related diseases, and the substrate preference of the 20S isoform for misfolded proteins, enhancing the proteolytic activity of the 20S proteasome has arisen as an attractive strategy to minimize the burden associated with this increased protein load. Recently, we identified the FDA-approved drug miconazole (MO) as a stimulator of the 20S isoform and validated its activity profile in biochemical and cell-based assays. Given its FDA-approved drug status, we considered that to successfully repurpose it, information regarding its binding location within the 20S and network of binding partners, as well as its value in protein homeostasis in age-related diseases are necessary. Herein, we (1) conduct SAR studies to determine MO’s key features responsible for proteasomal activation and obtain molecules with enhanced ability to activate the 20S proteasome; next, using the developed SAR model, we (2) design a diazirine-based photoreactive probe that allows for the identification of MO’s binding partners and location within the 20S proteasome. Lastly, we (3) explore the use of MO to restore the activity of impaired proteasomes by Parkinson’s disease-associated toxic oligomers. This work expands upon previous research avenues by using newer approaches to study this enzymatic complex, and describes methods that can be further used to better establish the role of the 20S proteasome in age-related diseases.</p>

The deposition of β-amyloid peptides and of α-synuclein proteins is a neuropathological hallmark in the brains of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and Parkinson’s disease (PD) subjects, respectively. However, there is accumulative evidence that both proteins are not exclusive for their clinical entity but instead co-exist and interact with each other. Here, we investigated the presence of a newly identified, pyroglutamate79-modified α-synuclein variant (pGlu79-aSyn)—along with the enzyme matrix metalloproteinase-3 (MMP-3) and glutaminyl cyclase (QC) implicated in its formation—in AD and in the transgenic Tg2576 AD mouse model. In the human brain, pGlu79-aSyn was detected in cortical pyramidal neurons, with more distinct labeling in AD compared to control brain tissue. Using immunohistochemical double and triple labelings and confocal laser scanning microscopy, we demonstrate an association of pGlu79-aSyn, MMP-3 and QC with β-amyloid plaques. In addition, pGlu79-aSyn and QC were present in amyloid plaque-associated reactive astrocytes that were also immunoreactive for the chaperone heat shock protein 27 (HSP27). Our data are consistent for the transgenic mouse model and the human clinical condition. We conclude that pGlu79-aSyn can be generated extracellularly or within reactive astrocytes, accumulates in proximity to β-amyloid plaques and induces an astrocytic protein unfolding mechanism involving HSP27.

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder worldwide affecting 1 - 2 % of the population older than 65. Patients develop characteristic motoric dysfunctions alongside early-onset non-motor symptoms including sleeping disorders, anxiety or depression and late-stage cognitive deficits such as dementia. To date, dopamine-replacement therapies are the gold standard for treating PD patients, improving motoric disorders by compensating for the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra, however no curative therapies to prevent disease progression are yet available. The pathomechanism underlying PD is complex, and the interplay of factors causing the disease is not entirely understood. The formation of α-synuclein protein aggregates, being one of the hallmarks associated with PD, is regarded as a major contributor to neuronal death and the spreading of PD pathology throughout different brain regions as the disease progresses. In the past, deficits in cellular protein clearance machinery have been affiliated with the accumulation of α-synuclein aggregates in PD. In particular, impairements in the macroautophagy-lysosomal pathway (here referred to as autophagy), which is involved in the degradation of large cytosolic components, were found to promote α-synuclein aggregation. In contrast, autophagic stimulation has been shown to benefit α-synuclein degradation and rescue PD phenotypes in cell and rodent models. In this study, I examined the role of FYCO1 in modulating neuronal autophagic processes for α-synuclein aggregate clearance in hiPSC-derived neurons. FYCO1 is an interaction partner of the central autophagic regulator RAB7 but was mostly unnoticed since it was not found detrimental to cellular homeostasis under basal conditions. Still, previous work of our group has identified FYCO1 to rescue PD phenotypes in model systems such as HEK cells and Drosophila, due to improved α-synuclein clearance following FYCO1 overexpression. Mechanistically, FYCO1 is involved in autophagosome-lysosome fusion events by binding to autophagic vesicles, which is required for autophagosome maturation and final degradation. In addition, FYCO1 affiliates autophagic vesicles with the cellular transport machinery via kinesin motor proteins. While fusion promotion can be assigned to an enhancing effect on autophagic clearance, FYCO1-induced anterograde transport promotion is opposite to the retrograde trafficking route of autophagic vesicles for maturation, which is of special importance in neuronal axons. Here, I illuminated FYCO1 effects on both axonal vesicle transport processes and somal vesicle pools to evaluate its ability to promote autophagy-related degradation in neurons. To this end, I established a lentiviral transduction-based model in hiPSC-derived neurons to express FYCO1 in the presence of either a fluorescently labelled marker for autophagic vesicles (LC3-TFL) or in the presence of α-synuclein. In neuronal axons, FYCO1 overexpression impaired retrograde autophagic transport resulting in less movement, implying an inhibitory effect on axonal autophagy. In contrast, FYCO1 enhanced autophagic processes in neuronal somata by upregulating LC3 levels, promoting the collection of α-synuclein in autophagic vesicle clusters and increasing the colocalisation of autophagosomes with lysosomal markers, pointing to the advance in autophagosome maturation. I could not fully resolve, whether α-synuclein degradation was promoted by this induction, as α-synuclein clearance was not indicated yet in the time course of three weeks. Still, studying mutant forms of FYCO1 revealed deficits in autophagosome maturation, which were not represented with wild-type FYCO1. In particular, the autophagosome-interaction domain was essential for autophagosome-lysosome fusion and additionally seemed to be relevant for autophagosomes entering axonal transport, while mutations in the kinesin binding domain caused autophagosome acidification impairments. The most pronounced effect of FYCO1 overexpression in neurons was the modulation of lysosomal vesicles. Besides increasing lysosomal localisation to autophagic vesicles, FYCO1 promoted retrograde trafficking of axonal lysosomal vesicles, by a so far unresolved mechanism. As increasing transport of lysosomes toward the neuronal soma can be connected to the upregulation of autophagy, I hypothesise FYCO1 to be a mediator in autophagy induction signalling. Nevertheless, such an effect needs to be verified in future studies. Conclusively, with this work, I contributed to the understanding of FYCO1’s role in enhancing neuronal autophagic processes but further studies in more advanced PD models are required to evaluate whether this could contribute to an increased clearance of α-synuclein aggregates.

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the second-most common neurodegenerative disease after Alzheimer’s disease. With 500,000 individuals currently living with Parkinson’s and nearly 60,000 new cases diagnosed each year, this disease causes significant financial burden on the healthcare system - amassing to annual expenditures totaling 200 billion dollars; predicted to increase through 2050. The disease phenotype is characterized by a combination of a resting tremor, bradykinesia, muscular rigidity, and depression due to dopaminergic neuronal death in the midbrain. The cause of the neurotoxicity has been largely discussed, with strong evidence suggesting that the protein, alpha-Synuclein, is a key factor. Under native conditions, alpha-Synuclein can be found localized at synaptic terminals where it is hypothesized to be involved in vesicle trafficking and recycling. However, its biochemical profile reveals a hydrophobic region that, once subjected to insult, initiates an aggregation cascade. Oligomeric species—products of the aggregation cascade—demonstrate marked neurotoxicity in dopaminergic neurons and illustrate migratory potential to neighboring healthy neurons, thereby contributing to progressive neurodegeneration. The current golden standard for PD diagnostics is a highly qualitative system involving a process-by-elimination with accuracy that is contingent upon physician experience. This, and a lack of standardized clinical testing procedures, lends to a 25% misdiagnosis rate. Even under circumstances of an accurate PD diagnosis, the only treatment options are pharmacologics that have a wide range of adverse side effects and ultimately contribute to systemic metabolic dysfunction. Thus, the research presented in this thesis seeks to overcome these current challenges by providing (1) a quantitative diagnostic platform and (2) a biomolecular therapeutic, towards oligomeric alpha-Synuclein. Aim 1: serves as a proof-of-concept for the use of catalytic nucleic acid moieties, deoxyribozymes and aptamers, to quantify alpha-Synuclein in a novel manner and explore the ability to detect oligomeric cytotoxic species. The cost-effective nature of these sensors allows for continued optimization. Aim 2: serves to establish a potential therapy that can abrogate alpha-synuclein oligomerization and toxicity through use of a modified Protein Disulfide Isomerase (PDI) peptide when introduced to live cells treated to simulate pre-parkinsonian pathology.

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In Parkinson's disease, aggregates of α-synuclein within Lewy bodies and Lewy neurites represent neuropathological hallmarks. However, the cellular and molecular mechanisms triggering oligomeric and fibrillary α-synuclein aggregation are not fully understood. Recent evidence indicates that oxidative stress induced by metal ions and post-translational modifications such as phosphorylation, ubiquitination, nitration, glycation, and SUMOylation affect α-synuclein conformation along with its aggregation propensity and neurotoxic profiles. In addition, proteolytic cleavage of α-synuclein by specific proteases results in the formation of a broad spectrum of fragments with consecutively altered and not fully understood physiological and/or pathological properties. In the present review, we summarize the current knowledge on proteolytical α-synuclein cleavage by neurosin, calpain-1, cathepsin D, and matrix metalloproteinase-3 in health and disease. We also shed light on the contribution of the same enzymes to proteolytical processing of pathogenic proteins in Alzheimer's disease and report potential cross-disease mechanisms of pathogenic protein aggregation.

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that is neuropathologically characterized by degeneration of dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra (SN) and formation of Lewy bodies and Lewy neurites composed of aggregated α-synuclein. Proteolysis of α-synuclein by matrix metalloproteinases was shown to facilitate its aggregation and to affect cell viability. One of the proteolysed fragments, Gln79-α-synuclein, possesses a glutamine residue at its N-terminus. We argue that glutaminyl cyclase (QC) may catalyze the pyroglutamate (pGlu)79-α-synuclein formation and, thereby, contribute to enhanced aggregation and compromised degradation of α-synuclein in human synucleinopathies. Here, the kinetic characteristics of Gln79-α-synuclein conversion into the pGlu-form by QC are shown using enzymatic assays and mass spectrometry. Thioflavin T assays and electron microscopy demonstrated a decreased potential of pGlu79-α-synuclein to form fibrils. However, size exclusion chromatography and cell viability assays revealed an increased propensity of pGlu79- α-synuclein to form oligomeric aggregates with high neurotoxicity. In brains of wild-type mice, QC and α-synuclein were co-expressed by dopaminergic SN neurons. Using a specific antibody against the pGlu-modified neo-epitope of α-synuclein, pGlu79-α-synuclein aggregates were detected in association with QC in brains of two transgenic mouse lines with human α-synuclein overexpression. In human brain samples of PD and dementia with Lewy body subjects, pGlu79-α-synuclein was shown to be present in SN neurons, in a number of Lewy bodies and in dystrophic neurites. Importantly, there was a spatial co-occurrence of pGlu79-α-synuclein with the enzyme QC in the human SN complex and a defined association of QC with neuropathological structures. We conclude that QC catalyzes the formation of oligomer-prone pGlu79-α-synuclein in human synucleinopathies, which may—in analogy to pGlu-Aβ peptides in Alzheimer’s disease—act as a seed for pathogenic protein aggregation.

Parkinson ist eine neurodegenerative Erkrankung mit motorischen sowie nicht-motorischen Einschränkungen für die betroffenen Personen. Es wird von einer multifaktoriellen Ätiologie ausgegangen, bei der es zur Entstehung von Lewy-Körperchen kommt. Ein Hauptbestandteil dieser Körperchen ist das in Aggregaten vorliegende Protein Alpha-Synuclein (α-syn). Derartige neurodegenerative Erkrankungen wie Parkinson, Demenz mit Lewy-Körperchen sowie Multisystematrophie sind als Synucleinopathien zusammengefasst. Der durch die α-syn-Pathologie mögliche Einfluss auf die adulte Neurogenese wurde als mögliche Ursache oder zumindest als Beitrag zu den Gedächtnisstörungen genannt, die sowohl bei Patienten als auch in Tiermodellen der Parkinson-Krankheit und der Demenz mit Lewy-Körperchen (DLB) beobachtet werden. Im adulten Gehirn findet die Neurogenese einerseits in der subgranulären Zone (SGZ) des hippocampalen Gyrus dendatus (GD) und andererseits in der suventrikulären Zone des lateralen Ventrikels statt. Da Parkinson bei Tieren nicht hinreichend charakterisiert ist, ist die Verwendung eines geeigneten transgenen Mausmodells unerlässlich. Mäuse, die das Wildtyp-α-Syn unter dem Thy1-Promotor überexprimieren (Thy1-α-syn, Linie 61), zeigen frühe kognitive Defizite zusammen mit mehreren anderen charakteristischen motorischen und nicht-motorischen Symptomen. Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, die neuralen Vorläuferzellen (NVZ), Neurone und Astrogliazellen im adulten Hippocampus in der Wildtyp-Maus und dem Mausmodell Thy1-α-syn, Linie 61 zu charakterisieren, quantifizieren und zwischen dem Wildtyp und dem Mausmodell zu vergleichen. In dieser Studie wurde ein signifikanter Anstieg in der Anzahl der frühen Vorläuferzellen, d. h. der Pax6+/PCNA+ Zellen, im GD der Thy1-α-syn-Mäuse, sowohl im Alter von 6 und 16 Monaten, ermittelt. Die Anzahl der NVZ, d. h. der PCNA+ Zellen, ist in den 16, jedoch nicht in den 6, Monate alten Tieren im Vergleich zum WT signifikant erhöht. Während die Anzahl der späten Vorläuferzellen und Neurone, d. h. der Tbr2+/PCNA+ und NeuN+ Zellen, im GD der Thy1-α-syn-Mäuse im Vergleich zu den Kontrolltieren in beiden Altersgruppen nicht signifikant verändert war. Die stärkste Expression von phosphoryliertem α-syn konnte in den Regionen CA1 und CA3 gezeigt werden. Die Messung der GFAP-Pixelintensität ergab einen signifikanten Anstieg in den Hippocampusregionen CA1, SGZ, in der Molekularschicht und der polymorphzelligen Schicht in Thy1-α-syn-Mäusen im Vergleich zu den Kontrolltieren sowohl in den 6 und 16 Monate alten Tieren. Beim Vergleich der Verhältnisse von CA1 zur SGZ, Molekularschicht und polymorphzelligen Schicht zeigte sich jedoch kein Unterschied GFAP-Pixelintensität zwischen den Thy1-α-syn-Mäusen und den Kontrolltieren in beiden Altersgruppen, was auf eine Allgemeine, nicht ortsgebundene, Astrogliose in den Thy1-α-syn-Mäusen hinweist. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit zeigen eine Steigerung in der Anzahl der frühen neuralen Vorläuferzellen im adulten Hypocampus in einem Thy1-α-syn-überexprimierenden Mausmodell. Sie bilden die Grundlage für weitere Untersuchungen zur Pathogenese der PD im Tiermodell sowie zur Entdeckung wirksamer therapeutischer Maßnahmen gegen die kognitive Dysfunktion bei Morbus Parkinson und DLB.:1. Einleitung 2. Literaturübersicht 2.1 Alpha-Synuclein 2.1.1 Eigenschafften des Proteins 2.1.2 Synucleinopathien 2.2 Parkinson 2.2.1 Definition 2.2.2 Epidemiologie 2.2.3 Einteilung 2.2.4 Symptome 2.2.5 Pathogenese 2.2.6 Diagnostik 2.2.7 Therapie 2.3 Hippocampus 2.4 Neurogenese 2.4.1 Neurogenese im adulten Hippocampus 2.4.2 Neurogenese im Zusammenhang mit Synucleinopathien 2.5 Immunhistochemische Marker 2.5.1 PCNA und Ki67 2.5.2 Pax6 2.5.3 Nestin 2.5.4 Tbr2 2.5.5 NeuN und Tbr1 2.5.6 GFAP 2.6 Mausmodell 3. Publikation 3.1 Eigenanteil der Publikation 3.2 Publikation mit dem Titel: “Alpha-Synuclein Pathology Coincides With Increased Number of Early Stage Neural Progenitors in the Adult Hippocampus” 4. Diskussion 5. Zusammenfassung 6. Summary 7. Literaturverzeichnis 8. Danksagung

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