Phage display technology has emerged as the dominant approach in antibody engineering. Here I describe my work in developing a high-throughput method of reliably generating intracellular antibodies. In my first data chapter, I present the first known high-throughput pipeline for antibody-phage display libraries of synthetic diversity and I demonstrate how increasing the scale of both target production and library selection still results in the capture of antibodies to over 50% of targets. In my second data chapter, I present the construction and validation of a novel scFv-phage library that will serve as the first step in my proposed intrabody pipeline. Antibodies obtained from this library will be screened for functionality using a novel yeast-two-hybrid approach and have numerous downstream applications. This high-throughput pipeline is amenable to automation and can be scaled up to thousands of domains, resulting in the potential generation of many novel therapeutic reagents.

Phage display technology has emerged as the dominant approach in antibody engineering. Here I describe my work in developing a high-throughput method of reliably generating intracellular antibodies. In my first data chapter, I present the first known high-throughput pipeline for antibody-phage display libraries of synthetic diversity and I demonstrate how increasing the scale of both target production and library selection still results in the capture of antibodies to over 50% of targets. In my second data chapter, I present the construction and validation of a novel scFv-phage library that will serve as the first step in my proposed intrabody pipeline. Antibodies obtained from this library will be screened for functionality using a novel yeast-two-hybrid approach and have numerous downstream applications. This high-throughput pipeline is amenable to automation and can be scaled up to thousands of domains, resulting in the potential generation of many novel therapeutic reagents.

<p>Natural IgM (nIgM) is constitutively present in the serum, where it aids in the early control of viral and bacterial expansions. nIgM also plays a significant role in the prevention of autoimmune disease by promoting the clearance of cellular debris. However, the cells that maintain high titers of nIgM in the circulation had not yet been identified. Several studies have linked serum nIgM with the presence of fetal-lineage B cells, and others have detected IgM secretion directly by B1a cells in various tissues. Nevertheless, a substantial contribution of undifferentiated B1 cells to nIgM titers is doubtful, as the ability to produce large quantities of antibody (Ab) is a function of the phenotype and morphology of differentiated plasma cells (PCs). No direct evidence exists to support the claim that a B1-cell population directly produces the bulk of circulating nIgM. The source of nIgM thus remained uncertain and unstudied.</p><p>In the first part of this study, I identified the primary source of nIgM. Using enzyme-linked immunosorbent spot (ELISPOT) assay, I determined that the majority of IgM Ab-secreting cells (ASCs) in naïve mice reside in the bone marrow (BM). Flow cytometric analysis of BM cells stained for intracellular IgM revealed that nIgM ASCs express IgM and the PC marker CD138 on their surface, but not the B1a cell marker CD5. By spinning these cells onto slides and staining them, following isolation by fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS), I found that they exhibit the typical morphological characteristics of terminally differentiated PCs. Transfer experiments demonstrated that BM nIgM PCs arise from a progenitor in the peritoneal cavity (PerC), but not isolated PerC B1a, B1b, or B2 cells. Immunoglobulin (Ig) gene sequence analysis and examination of B1-8i mice, which carry an Ig knockin that prohibits fetal B-cell development, indicated that nIgM PCs differentiate from fetal-lineage B cells. BrdU uptake experiments showed that the nIgM ASC compartment contains a substantial fraction of long-lived plasma cells (LLPCs). Finally, I demonstrated that nIgM PCs occupy a survival niche distinct from that used by IgG PCs.</p><p>In the second part of this dissertation, I characterized the unique survival niche of nIgM LLPCs, which maintain constitutive high titers of nIgM in the serum. By using genetically deficient or Ab-depleted mice, I found that neither T cells, type 2 innate lymphoid cells, nor mast cells, the three major hematopoietic producers of IL-5, were required for nIgM PC survival in the BM. However, IgM PCs associate strongly with IL-5-expressing BM stromal cells, which support their survival in vitro when stimulated. In vivo neutralization of IL-5 revealed that, like individual survival factors for IgG PCs, IL-5 is not the sole supporter of IgM PCs, but is likely one of several redundant molecules that together ensure uninterrupted signaling. Thus, the long-lived nIgM PC niche is not composed of hematopoietic sources of IL-5, but a stromal cell microenvironment that provides multiple redundant survival signals.</p><p>In the final part of my study, I identified and characterized the precursor of nIgM PCs, which I found in the first project to be resident in the PerC, but not a B1a, B1b, or B2 cell. By transferring PerC cells sorted based on expression of CD19, CD5, and CD11b, I found that only the CD19+CD5+CD11b- population contained cells capable of differentiating into nIgM PCs. Transfer of decreasing numbers of unfractionated PerC cells into Rag1 knockouts revealed an order-of-magnitude drop in the rate of serum IgM reconstitution between stochastically sampled pools of 106 and 3x105 PerC cells, suggesting that the CD19+CD5+CD11b- compartment comprises two cell types, and that interaction between the two necessary for nIgM-PC differentiation. By transferring neonatal liver, I determined that the early hematopoietic environment is required for nIgM PC precursors to develop. Using mice carrying a mutation that disturbs cKit expression, I also found that cKit appears to be required at a critical point near birth for the proper development of nIgM PC precursors.</p><p>The collective results of these studies demonstrate that nIgM is the product of BM-resident PCs, which differentiate from a PerC B cell precursor distinct from B1a cells, and survive long-term in a unique survival niche created by stromal cells. My work creates a new paradigm by which to understand nIgM, B1 cell, and PC biology.</p> / Dissertation

HIV-1 has evolved a number of strategies in response to current anti-retroviral drugs and the selection pressure of humoral and cellular immunity. In particular, R5 viral strains that are essential for AIDS pathogenesis are very resistant to neutralization by antibodies. Therefore, the aim of this thesis was to develop synthetic nucleic acid ligands, aptamers, against gp120 of an R5 strain of HIV-1, with a view of using aptamers as novel neutralization molecules and analytical tools to study HIV-1 entry into target cells. The central hypothesis of this thesis was that aptamers by virtue of their small size and slow dissociation rates, compared to antibodies, would easily access and bind occluded gp120 neutralization sites. Using the SELEX protocol and SPR technology, I isolated 2'-Fluoro-pyrimidine-RNA aptamers against HIV-l_Ba-L monomeric gp120. Most of these aptamers not only bound gp120 with high affinities but also neutralized R5 primary isolates in human PBMC by 1,000 to 100,000-fold, truly unprecedented when compared with natural ligands such as antibodies. Some aptamers, like B4, defined a conserved site of gp120 that could not mutate to escape neutralization following stringent selection, in vitro, for breakthrough virus. This was consistent with subsequent findings that B4 aptatope (binding site) overlaps a poorly immunogenic but highly conserved CD4-induced epitope as determined by competition with 17b and 48d mAbs that map to this neutralization epitope on the gp120. This study was thus the first of its kind to describe neutralization of HIV-1 primary isolates by a ligand against the CD4-induced epitope. Most intriguing, although B4 potently neutralized HIV-1_Ba-L infection in PBMC, which is a mixed T cell and macrophage population, it modestly neutralized infection of the same virus in a purified culture of macrophages. These findings are intriguing in that they suggest that aptamers could be used to dissect unique sites on the virus that interact with target cell surface in ways that have not been revealed heretofore, and would help understand better HIV-1 entry pathways, especially in macrophages. Thus neutralizing aptamers such as these could be exploited to provide leads in developing alternative anti-HIV-1 drugs and a deeper understanding of the molecular interactions between the virus and its host cell.

This particular work is proposed as a test of the expedience of using the fluorescent-antibody technique as a method for enumeration and identification of certain strains of B. cereus that have been found to be effective in preventing taste and odor in water supplies resulting from certain Actinomycete blooms.

<p>Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the etiologic agent of tuberculosis (TB), is among the leading causes of death from infectious disease world-wide. An intracellular pathogen, M. tuberculosis infects phagocytic cells, and subverts the host immune response, preventing eradication once infection has been established. Even after successful chemotherapy, exogenous re-infection occurs, indicating that sterilizing immune responses are not generated during natural infection. While a TB vaccine exists, it does not alter M. tuberculosis infection rate, rather it prevents the progression from latent TB infection to active TB disease. Vaccines against Haemophilus influenzae and Streptococcus pneumonia protect from bacterial colonization and infection through the induction of antibodies to capsular surface components. This dissertation explores if antibodies to the surface of M. tuberculosis can alter the initial interaction between a bacterium and host cell, leading to a reduction in infection rate. </p><p> When pre-mixed with M. tuberculosis prior to in vitro infection of macrophages, or retropharyngeal instillation of mice, monoclonal surface-binding, but not non-surface-binding antibodies, decrease bacterial burden and the number of infected cells within the first twenty-four hour of infection. If administered retropharyngeally prior to aerosol exposure, surface-binding antibodies decreased pulmonary bacterial burden at twenty-four hours post infection in an Fc&#947;R independent manner. Despite decreasing early bacterial burden, pre-administration of surface-binding antibodies prior to ultra-low dose aerosol infection did not alter infection rate compared to mice instilled with PBS (Chapters 4 and 5). </p><p> Infected humans do not produce high-titer, high-avidity surface-binding antibodies. Plasma from uninfected controls, individuals with latent TB infection, and active TB disease was assayed by ELISA to determine the titer, avidity and IgG/IgM ratio for antibodies to the surface and additional bacterial fraction. In contrast to antibodies to bacterial fractions, individuals with active TB disease had decreased avidity, and no augmentation of the IgG/IgM ratio for antibodies to the live M. tuberculosis surface, as compared to uninfected controls (Chapter 3). </p><p> Overall these findings demonstrate that surface-binding monoclonal antibodies alter early infection events, both in vivo and in vitro, though the magnitude of protection was not sufficient to decrease M. tuberculosis infection rate. Additionally, the failure of humans to generate high-titer, high-avidity surface-binding antibodies after infection indicates and that induction of surface-binding antibodies may be an appropriate target for future vaccines.</p> / Dissertation

Flukes of the genus Trichobilharzia are typical parasites using aquatic gastropods as intermediate hosts and birds as definitive hosts. However, infectious stages in open water are able to penetrate the skin of a mammal, including humans, and thereby induce a hypersensitivity reaction known as swimmer's itch. Infection with neurotropic species T. regenti in ducks induces an increase in level of IgY antibody which recognize certain parasitic antigens. In this work, these parameters in two other relative but visceral species, T. szidati and T. franki, and cross-reactivity of antibodies in serum of infected duck against heterologous parasitic antigen by ELISA and Western blot were characterized. Antibodies of ducks infected with T. szidati showed very low reactivity with all three parasitic antigens in compare to ducks infected with T. franki or T. regenti. The previously identified strongly immunogenic T. regenti antigens have been evaluated as species non-specific for all trichobilharzia species studied, but useful for avian fluke infection in wild individuals diagnosis.

CD146 est une molécule d’adhésion appartenant à la superfamille des immunoglobulines qui existe sous trois formes, deux isoformes membranaires et une forme soluble. Elle a été découverte initialement dans les cellules de mélanome humain où son expression est un marqueur de mauvais pronostic. Depuis elle a été décrite dans de nombreux types de cancer (prostate, sein, rein, poumon non à petites cellules, …). Elle est aussi exprimée sur l’ensemble de l’endothélium vasculaire.Dans la première partie de ce travail, nous avons montré que CD146 soluble provient du clivage de l’ectodomaine des isoformes longue et courte de CD146 respectivement par ADAM 10 et Tace (ADAM 17). De plus, nous avons identifié deux autres isoformes de CD146 soluble provenant d’un épissage alternatif, I10-sCD146 et I5-13-sCD146. Ces différentes formes de CD146 soluble agissent sur l’endothélium vasculaire en stimulant l’angiogenèse.Dans la seconde partie du travail, nous avons généré un anticorps anti-CD146 capable de détecter CD146 dans les cellules cancéreuses mais pas dans les cellules qui l’expriment dans les conditions physiologiques (cellules endothéliales, cellules musculaires lisses). Nous avons montré que cet anticorps présente un intérêt diagnostique et un intérêt thérapeutique. Son mécanisme d’action implique une internalisation de la molécule CD146, ce qui permet d’envisager une utilisation en médecine personnalisée. / CD146 is an adhesion molecule belonging to the immunoglobulin superfamily that exists as three forms, two membrane isoforms and a soluble form. It was originally discovered in human melanoma cells where its expression is a marker of poor prognosis. Since it has been described in many types of cancer (prostate, breast, kidney, non-small cell lung cancer, ...). It is also expressed throughout the vascular endothelium.In the first part of the study, we showed that soluble CD146 originates from the shedding of the ectodomain of the long and short isoforms of CD146 by ADAM 10 and Tace (ADAM 17) respectively. In addition, we identified two other isoforms of soluble CD146 generated by alternative splicing, I10-sCD146 and I5-13-sCD146. These different forms of soluble CD146 display effects on the vascular endothelium by stimulating angiogenesis.In the second part of the study, we generated an anti-CD146 antibody able to detect CD146 in cancer cells but not in cells that express the molecule in physiological conditions (endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells). We have shown that this antibody displays both diagnostic and therapeutic interests. Its mechanism of action involves the internalization of CD146, allowing a potential use in personalized medicine.

No útero gestante dos animais com placentação do tipo hemocorial, ocorre uma migração e acúmulo transitório de linfócitos natural killer (NK) , cuja atuação na gestação não está totalmente elucidada. Estas células NK do ambiente uterino (uNK) apresentam comportamento distinto daquelas encontradas no sangue circulante (cNK), constituindo uma sub-população das células NK com expressão gênica específica ditada pelo ambiente uterino gestante. De fato, se estas células isoladas do útero de camundongos prenhes forem inoculadas em machos da mesma espécie eram capazes de induzir a resposta imunológica com produção de anticorpos que reagem especificamente com as células uNK. No presente trabalho foi utilizado um destes anticorpos monoclonais denominados de \"mouse anti-mouse uterine natural killer cell clone 1 (mam-uNK1)\" obtidos anteriormente em nosso laboratório para avaliar a especificidade deste anticorpo e a localização da molécula antigênica correspondente. Para tanto, foram utilizados cortes histológicos do útero no 9º dia de gestação, dos órgãos linfóides (baço, timo e linfonodo), do cérebro, do fígado e do coração submetidos à reações imunocitoquímicas com o anticorpo mam-uNK1 em nível da microscopia de luz e, pela imunomicroscopia eletrônica nas células uNK do útero gestante e células estriadas cardíacas do miocárdio. Foram obtidos homogenados teciduais dos mesmos órgãos avaliados pela imunocitoquímica para realização do SDS-PAGE e Western-blot com o intuído de identificar as frações protéicas reativas e homologia entre os diversos órgãos. Os padrões de imunomarcação com o mam-uNK1 foram comparadas com o padrão de reatividade da lectina DBA (Dolichos biflorus) tanto nos cortes histológicos quanto nos homogenados submetidos ao Western-blot. Os resultados demonstraram reação positiva distribuída difusamente no citoplasma, com maior intensidade no perímetro das células uNK, e marcação difusa no citoplasma das células deciduais e das células musculares lisas do miométrio. Reações positivas foram encontradas também no citoplasma das células musculares cardíacas, no citoplasma das células reticulares dos órgãos linfóides, nos feixes de nervos do sistema nervoso central e no citoplasma dos hepatócitos. Pela imunomicroscopia eletrônica foram observadas partículas de ouro coloidal em maior número no citoplasma que preenchem os prolongamentos citoplasmáticos tipo microvilosidades e no citoplasma marginal abaixo da membrana plasmática nas células uNK. Nas células musculares cardíacas as marcações mais intensas foram constatadas no citoplasma da extremidade destas células onde as miofibrilas eram menos organizadas e se ancoravam à membrana plasmática. Pelo Western-blot, foram identificadas duas bandas reativas ao mam-uNK1 com peso molecular de 52 e 54 kDa comuns a todos os órgãos analisados. Estes dados demonstram que a molécula reconhecida pelo anticorpo mam-uNK1 tem ampla distribuição em diversos tipos celulares não sendo específica para as células uNK, porém apresentam uma localização peculiar nestas células e nas células musculares cardíacas. Pelo padrão de localização identificado em imunomicroscopia eletrônica, presume-se que estas moléculas estejam associadas com a modulação do citoesqueleto nas diversas atividades que estes componentes estruturais desempenham nas células, sendo particularmente interessante a relação com a motilidade celular. / In the pregnant uterus of animals developing hemochorial type placentation occurs a transient migration and accumulation of natural killer lymphocytes (NK) which activity in the pregnancy has not been fully elucidated. These NK cells from uterine environment (uNK) present a distinct behavior from those found in the peripheral circulating blood (cNK), composing a subset of NK cells with specific gene expression that is regulated by pregnant uterus. Actually, these cells isolated from pregnant mice uteri were inoculated in the male mice of same strains, they induced immune response with production of antibodies reactivity specifically to uNK cells. In the present work it was used one of these mouse anti-mouse uterine natural killer cells clone 1 (mam-uNK1) monoclonal antibody that was obtained previously in our laboratory, in the aim to evaluate the specificity of this antibody and localization of corresponding antigenic molecule. It was used histological sections of uteri on 9º gestational day, lymphoid organs (spleen, thymus and lymph node), brain, liver and heart processed for immunocytochemistry with mam-uNK antibody at light microscopy and immunoelectron microscopy for uNK cells in pregnant uterus and cardiac muscle cells. Tissue homogenates from the same organs that were evaluated by immunocytochemistry were obtained to perform SDS-PAGE and Western-blot primary to identify the proteins fractions reactive with mam-uNK antibody and possible homology among the tissues. The immunolabeling pattern using mam-uNK both, in histological sections and Western-blot were compared with pattern of Dolichos biflorus (DBA) lectin reactions. The results showed diffuse positive reaction distributed in the cytoplasm with higher intensity on perimeter of uNK cells and diffuse labeling in the cytoplasm of decidual cells and, in smooth muscle cells of miometrium. Positive reaction was also found in the cytoplasm of cardiac muscle cells, reticular cells of lymphoid organs, hepatocytes and in the axon bundles of the brain. By immunelectron microscopy, were observed higher number of gold particles in the cytoplasm of microvillous-like cell processes and in the marginal cytoplasm near the plasma membrane of uNK cells. In the cardiac muscle cells the most conspicuous labeling was seen in the cytoplasm of muscle cells at the end portions, that is, where the myofibrills were less organized and anchoring to plasma membrane. The Western-blot identified two bands with 52 and 54 kDa reactive do mam-uNK constantly found in all organs analyzed. These data show that the molecule that is recognized by mam-uNK1 antibody is widely distributed in several cell types, not specific for mouse uNK cells, but has a very peculiar localization in these cells and in the cardiac muscle cells. To the localization pattern that was identified by immunelectron microscopy it was suggested that, these molecules were associated to the modulation of the cytoskeleton in many activities that these structural component potentially could carry out in the cells, being particularly attractive those related to cell motility.

O gene humano KIAA0090 mapeia uma região cromossômica (1p36.13) com freqüentes aberrações em cânceres humanos e é superexpresso em muitos tipos de tumores. É um gene altamente complexo cujas seqüências de cDNA oriundas de bases de dados públicas apóiam a existência de mais de 20 transcritos alternativos. Sua RefSeq prediz a codificação de uma proteína altamente conservada com 993aa, cujo ortólogo em S. cerevisae (ECM1) foi proposto recentemente atuar no enovelamento de proteínas transmembrana no retículo endoplasmático (RE). O objetivo deste trabalho foi adquirir conhecimento sobre a localização e função da proteína KIAA0090, em células e tecidos normais e tumorais, bem como em células expostas a estresse. Geramos anticorpos policlonais (anti-K2) contra a metade C-terminal da proteína e comparamos seu padrão ao tratamento obtido com o anticorpo (anti-K1), previamente gerado contra a metade N-terminal. A proteína endógena foi localizada primariamente no Golgi e na mitocôndria, dependendo se o anticorpo utilizado foi contra a região N- ou C-terminal, respectivamente. Observamos também, embora menos notável, uma marcação sobreposta com a rede do RE e na margem celular, e variáveis graus de marcação dentro do núcleo e associada a pequenas partículas citoplasmáticas. A análise imunohistoquímica forneceu evidências que a KIAA0090 é ubiquamente epressa. O anti-K2 marcou estruturas semelhantes a Golgi em todo tipo celular, predominando assim naquelas com Golgi mais visíveis, como células secretórias. Observamos para a maioria dos tecidos uma marcação leve a moderada para o anti-K1, mas uma forte marcação foi encontrada em grupos restritos de células, como as células reticulares do timo, epitélio ductal das glândulas da língua e na lâmina basal do epitélio escamoso na zona de transição esôfago-gástrica. Em cortes histológicos de melanoma primário, observamos uma forte marcação para o anti-K1, principalmente em vasos e em células invasoras na margem do tumor, enquanto o anti-K2 mostrou um padrão sugestivo de infiltrado inflamatório e/ou células mesenquimais. Em tecidos de câncer de mama, vimos uma forte marcação nas células de carcinoma ductal em comparação ao epitélio ductal normal para o anti-K2, ao passo que o anti-K1, marcou fortemente vasos e células basais no epitélio de revestimento glandular, tanto no tecido normal como no tumoral. Utilizando uma matriz com amostras teciduais de câncer de mama obtidas de 96 pacientes, observamos uma marcação forte a moderada para o anti-K1 em 84% dos casos, enquanto 16% dos casos não apresentaram marcação. Notamos que os casos positivos para o anti-K1 estavam 100, 85 e 71% entre os casos de grade 1, 2 e 3, respectivamente, sugerindo uma tendência de perda da KIAA0090 associada à progressão do câncer de mama. Foi interessante notar que a brefeldina A e MG132 alteraram os níveis de RNAm da KIAA0090 e levaram à redistribuição da proteína endógena. Outros tratamentos de estresse, incluindo tunicamicina, complexo de rutênio doador de óxido nítrico e etoposídeo, também alteraram o padrão de distribuição da proteína. Este estudo fornece evidências preliminares que corroboram os resultados obtidos de estudos de expressão gênica em larga escala, fortalecendo os indícios de que a KIAA0090 desenvolve um papel na homeostase celular e está envolvida no câncer. / Human KIAA0090 gene maps to a chromosomal region (1p36.13) with frequent aberrations in cancer and is overexpressed in many tumor types. It is a highly complex gene with cDNA sequences in databases supporting the occurrence of more than 20 alternative transcripts. The RefSeq transcript is predicted to encode a highly conserved 993 aa transmembrane protein whose S. cerevisiae ortolog (EMC1) was recently proposed to function on transmembrane protein folding in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The aim of this work was to gain insight into the localization and function of KIAA0090 protein, in normal and tumor cells and tissues, as well as in cells exposed to stress treatments. We raised a polyclonal antibody (anti-K2) to the C-terminal half of the protein and compared its pattern of staining with an antibody (anti-K1) previously generated in our laboratory to the N-terminal half. The endogenous protein was primarily localized either to mitochondria or Golgi, depending whether the antibody used was to the N- or C-terminal, respectively. Also, less conspicuous staining overlapped with the ER network and cell margin, and variable degrees of labeling was observed within the nucleus and associated to small cytoplasmic particles. Immunohistochemistry survey provided evidence that the KIAA0090 protein is ubiquitously expressed. Anti-K2 labeled in a Golgi-like pattern in every cell type, predominating in those with more conspicuous Golgi, such as secretory cells. Faint to moderate anti-K1 staining was found in most tissues, but very strong staining was seen in restricted groups of cells, such as thymus reticular cells, ductal epithelium of salivary lingual glands and the basal layer of the squamous epithelium in the esophagus-gastric transition zone. In histological sections of primary melanomas, we observed a strong staining for the anti-K1, mostly in vessels and at the invasive tumor margin, while the anti-K2 showed a staining pattern suggestive of infiltrating inflammatory and mesenchymal cells. In breast tissues, stronger staining was seen in ductal carcinoma cells in comparison to normal ductal epithelium for anti-K2 antibody, whereas anti-K1 strongly marked vessels and basal cells in epithelia lining glandular ducts both in normal and tumor tissues. Using a tissue array of breast cancer samples obtained from 96 patients, we observed strong to moderate staining for anti-K1 in 84% of the samples and lack of staining in 16%, interestingly anti-K1 positive cases were 100, 85 and 71% among cases of grades 1, 2 and 3, respectively, suggesting a tendency of KIAA0090 loss associated with breast cancer progression. A positive correlation was found with estrogen receptor expression and the opposite for HER2. Interestingly, Brefeldin A and MG132 altered KIAA0090 mRNA levels and caused endogenous KIAA0090 protein to redistribute. Other stress treatments, including tunicamycin, a ruthenium complex nitric oxide donor and etoposide, also altered KIAA0090 distribution. This study supports the notion that KIAA0090 play a role in cellular homeostasis and is involved in cancer.