No / We have used the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae to identify genes that may confer sensitivity in vivo to the antimalarial and cytotoxic agent cryptolepine. Five S. cerevisiae strains, with different genetic backgrounds in cell permeability and DNA damage repair mechanisms, were exposed to several concentrations of cryptolepine. Cryptolepine showed a relatively mild toxicity for wild-type strains, which was augmented by either increasing cell permeability ( erg6 or ISE2 strains) or disrupting DNA damage repair ( rad52 strains). These results are compatible with the ability of cryptolepine to intercalate into DNA and thus promote DNA lesions. The effects of low concentrations of cryptolepine (20% and 40% inhibitory concentrations [IC20 and IC40]) were analyzed by comparing the gene expression profiles of treated and untreated erg6 yeast cells. Significant changes in expression levels were observed for 349 genes (117 upregulated and 232 downregulated). General stress-related genes constituted the only recognizable functional cluster whose expression was increased upon cryptolepine treatment, making up about 20% of upregulated genes. In contrast, analysis of the characteristics of downregulated genes revealed a specific effect of cryptolepine on genes related to iron transport or acid phosphatases, as well as a significant proportion of genes related to cell wall components. The effects of cryptolepine on the transcription of iron transport-related genes were consistent with a loss of function of the iron sensor Aft1p, indicating a possible disruption of iron metabolism in S. cerevisiae. Since the interference of cryptolepine with iron metabolism is considered one of its putative antimalarial targets, this finding supports the utility of S. cerevisiae in drug-developing schemes.

No / This paper reports 35 medicinal plants belonging to 25 families used in the treatment of malaria by the people inhabiting the forests located near to Bhubaneswar, the capital city of Orissa, a south-eastern state in India. The methods adopted for the preparation of plant parts are discussed along with their family and local name(s). The majority of the herbal preparations were made in the form of juices or by using water as the medium in the form of decoctions or infusions. Various plant parts, such as leaves, flowers, fruits, barks, stems, roots, and in some cases the whole plants are used to prepare these remedies each of which contains a single species.

No / A series of 19 huprines has been evaluated for their activity against cultured bloodstream forms of Trypanosoma brucei and Plasmodium falciparum. Moreover, cytotoxicity against rat myoblast L6 cells was assessed for selected huprines. All the tested huprines are moderately potent and selective trypanocidal agents, exhibiting IC50 values against T. brucei in the submicromolar to low micromolar range and selectivity indices for T. brucei over L6 cells of approximately 15, thus constituting interesting trypanocidal lead compounds. Two of these huprines were also found to be active against a chloroquine-resistant strain of P. falciparum, thus emerging as interesting trypanocidal–antiplasmodial dual acting compounds, but they exhibited little selectivity for P. falciparum over L6 cells.

No / Cajanus cajan L, a member of the family Fabaceae, was identified from the Nigerian antimalarial ethnobotany as possessing antimalarial properties. The bioassay-guided fractionation of the crude methanol extract of C. cajan leaves was done in vitro using the multiresistant strain of Plasmodium falciparum (K1) in the parasite lactate dehydrogenase assay. Isolation of compound was achieved by a combination of chromatographic techniques, while the structure of the compound was elucidated by spectroscopy. This led to the identification of a cajachalcone, 2′,6′-dihydroxy-4-methoxy chalcone, as the biologically active constituent from the ethyl acetate fraction. Cajachalcone had an IC50 value of 2.0 μg/mL (7.4 μM) and could be a lead for anti-malarial drug discovery.

Malaria, a disease caused by members of the Plasmodium genus, remains a threat to global health. Despite the availability of therapeutics, Plasmodium's propensity for generating resistance-conferring mutations threatens the efficacy of these drugs. Therefore, it is essential to develop novel therapeutics, and one approach to discover such compounds is to repurpose current drugs as antimalarials. Human kinase inhibitors, most of which are developed as antineoplastics, are a valuable source of such novel compounds. Human kinase inhibitor research spans over twenty years, generating a wellspring of knowledge regarding compound design, mechanism, and tolerability that can be leveraged in the quest to develop new antiplasmodial drugs. Furthermore, the plasmodial kinome differs substantially from the human kinome, providing opportunities for selectivity and minimization of off-target effects in the host. To this end, we sought to identify and characterize compounds within human kinase inhibitor collections that have antiplasmodial effects. One library yielded a potent polo-like kinase 1 (PLK1) kinase inhibitor, BI-2536, which possessed potent antiplasmodial activity in both the asexual blood stage and liver stage and likely acts through involvement of amino acid starvation. Another library comprised exclusively of type II kinase inhibitors, designed to target kinases in the inactive conformation, produced several interesting lead compounds – TL5-135, YLIU-06-026-1, and the analog pair XMD13-99 and WZ9-034-2. These compounds were highly active against asexual blood stage parasites, killing rapidly while also possessing favorable selectivity and liver stage activity. In vivo, TL5-135 and YLIU-06-026-1 acted prophylactically by preventing infection, and therapeutically by resolving an established infection. Currently, investigations are underway to determine the mechanism of action of the lead compounds and to improve their druglike properties. In whole, this effort has not only yielded promising antiplasmodial compounds, but it also underscores the value of the repurposing approach in the quest for novel antimalarial drugs.

No / A series of analogues of cryptolepine (1) have been synthesized and evaluated for their in vitro antiplasmodial and cytotoxic properties. The IC50 values of several compounds (11a, 11k¿m, 11o, 13) against Plasmodium falciparum (strain K1) were <0.1 ¿M, 5¿10-fold lower than that of 1 but their cytotoxicities were only 2¿4 times greater than that of 1. Compounds with a halogen in the quinoline ring and a halogen or a nitro group in the indole ring have enhanced antiplasmodial activity. In mice infected with P. berghei, the 7-bromo-2-chloro (11k) and 2-bromo-7-nitro (13) derivatives of 1 suppressed parasitemia by >90% at doses of 25 mg kg-1 day-1 with no apparent toxicity to the mice. 2,7-Dibromocryptolepine (15) was evaluated at several dose levels, and a dose-dependent suppression of parasitemia was seen (ED90 = 21.6 mg kg-1 day-1). The antimalarial mode of action of 1 appears to be similar to that of chloroquine and involves the inhibition of hemozoin formation. A number of analogues were assessed for their effects on the inhibition of ß-hematin (hemozoin) formation, and the results were compared with their antiplasmodial activities having taken account of their predicted accumulation into the acidic parasite food vacuole. No correlation was seen (r2 = 0.0781) suggesting that the potent antimalarial activity of compounds such as 15 involves other mechanisms in addition to the inhibition of hemozoin formation.

ABSTRACT Twenty essential oil constituents (EOC′s) from seven structural groups were tested for their antimalarial, antimicrobial (both bacterial and fungal), anti-oxidant, anticholinesterase and toxicity properties. To test for their antimalarial property, the tritiated hypoxanthine incorporation assay was used, while the disc diffusion and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) microplate assays were employed for the antimicrobial properties. The 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) method was used to test the anti-oxidant property and their toxicity profile was assessed with the 3-(4,5-dimethyl-2-thiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) cellular viability assay. The anticholinesterase activity was determined using the thin layer chromatography (TLC) bioautographic method. The EOC´s were found to inhibit the growth of Plasmodium falciparum with IC50 values ranging between 0.9 to 1528.8μM with E- and Z-(±)-nerolidol, (-)-pulegone, (+)-α-pinene and linalyl acetate being the most active. In combination p-cymene (the least active) and E- and Z-(±)-nerolidol (the most active) displayed the most synergistic interaction (ΣFIC = 0.09), with their antimalarial activity comparable to that of the interaction between E- and Z-(±)-nerolidol and quinine (ΣFIC = 0.01). Eugenol had the most favourable safety index and was the only EOC with anti-oxidant activity comparable to vitamin C. Combination studies showed that E- and Z-(±)-nerolidol and (-)-pulegone or quinine, p-cymene and γ-terpinene or (-)-pulegone potentiated each other′s toxicity. The EOC´s inhibited the growth of Gram-positive, Gram-negative bacteria and yeast with MIC values ranging from 1.66 to >238.4mM. When combined, synergism was observed between (+)-β-pinene and carvacrol or γ-terpinene; γ-terpinene and geranyl acetate when tested against Staphylococcus aureus, while (+)-β-pinene and (-)-menthone showed antagonism against C. albicans. The combinations of EOC′s and a standard antimicrobial resulted in synergistic interactions between carvacrol and ciprofloxacin against Bacillus cereus, eugenol and ciprofloxacin against Eschericia coli, carvacrol and amphotericin B against C. albicans. The trans-geraniol and E- and Z-(±)-nerolidol combination demonstrated an additive interaction against B. cereus, while for eugenol and E- and Z-(±)-nerolidol an indifferent interaction against E. coli was noted. These results show that the biological activities of EOC′s can vary when used alone and in combination. They do have the potential to be used as templates for novel drugs and as adjuncts to modern medicines in the combat against drug resistance.

Neste trabalho foram estudadas, por espectroscopia UV-Vis, as interações do fármaco anti-malária cloroquina com uma série de porfirinas meso fenilas substituídas aniônicas, catiônicas e neutras, e seus complexos Fe(III), em tampão aquoso e em solução metanólica. Com base nos resultados de interação, as ferro(III) porfirinas meso fenilas substiuídas e a FePPIX foram utilizadas como catalisadores para a oxidação de cloroquina por iodosilbenzeno (PhIO) e peróxidos (H2O2 e ácido meta-cloroperbenzóico, CPBA), em ambos os meios. Dos estudos de interação foi observado, em meio aquoso, pH 6,4, a formação de um complexo p-p, resultante do efeito cooperativo das interações eletrostáticas e da interação p-p entre as espécies aniônicas e a cloroquina. Em metanol nenhuma complexação p-p foi observada. As porfirinas e ferro(III) porfirinas neutras e catiônicas não formaram complexos com a cloroquina. As constantes de formação do complexo p-p entre as porfirinas ou ferro(III) porfirinas e cloroquina foram comparáveis áquelas relatadas na literatura para a cloroquina e outras ferro(III) porfirinas naturais. As reações de oxidação foram analisadas por cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência (CLAE). O principal produto obtido em todos os sitemas estudados foi a monodesetilcloroquina. Este é também o principal produto ?in vivo? da oxidação deste fármaco catalisada por CYP-450. A identificação do produto que é gerado em segunda maior quantidade, o derivado desetilamino da cloroquina, foi realizada por CLAE acoplada a espectrometria de massas. Dos resultados das reações de oxidação com PhIO e H2O2 foi possível constatar que: as ferro(III) porfirinas aniônicas são os catalisadores mais eficientes, com rendimentos de até 30 % de monodesetilcloroquina; em solução aquosa elas são seletivas para a deetilação oxidativa da cloroquina, enquanto que em metanol até cinco produtos de oxidação podem ser observados. As ferro(III) porfirinas neutras apresentam baixa atividade catalítica na oxidação da cloroquina por PhIO ou H2O2 pois não interage eletrostaticamente com o substrato. As ferro(III) porfirinas catiônicas não apresentam atividade catalítica devido à repulsão eletrostática com o substrato. As reações de oxidação por CPBA apresentaram baixos rendimentos devido à rápida destruição dos catalisadores quando se utilizou este oxidante. Foram ainda realizados estudos catalíticos utlizando ferro(III) porfirinas suportadas em membrana de polidimetilssiloxano (PDMS) e poli-(1?4)-b-d-glucosamina (quitosana) na oxidação de substratos padrões (ciclocteno, cicloexano e estireno). Destes, apenas a quitosana se mostrou um suporte adequado, resultando em um catalisador eficiente. As ferro(III) porfirinas imobilizadas neste suporte foram utlizadas na oxidação da cloroquina por PhIO, levando aos mesmos rendimentos que estas ferro(III) porfirinas apresentaram em meio homogêneo, mostrando também a dependência interação(FeP:substrato)/atividade catalítica previamente observada para as ferro(III) porfirinas em solução. Os resultados obtidos neste trabalho mostram que as ferro(III) porfirinas aniônicas são eficientes catalisadores biomiméticos da oxidação da cloroquina por PhIO e H2O2, tanto em solução como imobilizados. Além disso, pode-se concluir que a habilidade do catalisador em interagir com o substrato apresenta forte influência na atividade catalítica e deve ser levada em consideração nos estudos de outros sistemas modelos do CYP-450. / In this work, the interaction between the antimalarial drug chloroquine with a series of anionic, cationic, and neutral meso phenyl substitued porphyrins; and their iron(III) complexes, was investigated by UV-Vis spectroscopy, in aqueous buffer and methanolic solution. On the basis of the interaction results, the meso phenyl substitued iron(III) porphyrins and FePPIX were used as catalyst in the oxidation of chloroquine by iodosilbenzene (PhIO) or peroxides (H2O2 e meta-chloroperbenzoic acid, CPBA), in both media. From the interaction studies, it was possible to observe the formation of a p-p complex generated from the cooperative effect of the electrostatic and p-p interactions between the anionic species and chloroquine. In methanol, no complexation was observed. The neutral and cationic porphyrins and iron(III) porphyrins did not form complexes with chloroquine. The association constants of the p-p complex formed between the meso phenyl substitued porphyrins and iron(III) porphyrins with chloroquine were comparable with those reported in the literature for the interaction of chloroquine with others natural iron(III) porphyrins. The oxidation reaction produtcts were analized by high perfomance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The major product obtained in all the studied systems was monodesethylchloroquine. This compound is also the main ?in vivo? product of chloroquine metabolism catalised by CYP-450. The identification of the second most abundant product, the desethylamine derived from chloroquine, was performed by HPLC coupled with mass spectrometry. The results obtained from the oxidation reactions of chloroquine by PhIO and H2O2 indicated that: (i) the anionic iron(III) porphyrins are efficient catalysts, with yields close to 30 % for monodesethylchloroquine; (ii) in aqueous buffer they are selective toward the oxidative N-deethylation of chloroquine, while in methanol up to five oxidation products are obtained. The neutral iron(III) porphyrins presented low catalytic activity for the chloroquine oxidation by PhIO or H2O2 due to the lack of electrostatic interaction between the catalyst and the substrate. (iii) The cationic iron(III) porphyrins did not exhibit any catalytic activity because of electrostatic repulsion tha tales place between the catalyst and the substrate. Catalyst degradation occurred when CPBA was used as oxidant, leading to very low yields of oxidation products. Catalytic studies using iron(III) porphyrins supported in polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) membranes and in poly-(1?4)-b-d-glucosamine (chitosan) were also performed for the oxidation of standard substrates (cicloctene, ciclohexane and styrene). Only chitosan was considered to be an adequate support, resulting in efficient catalysis. The iron(III) porphyrins immobilized on this support were used for the oxidation of chloroquine by PhIO, leading to the same yields as those obtained with the same iron(III) porphyrins in homogeneous medium. It is noteworthy that the relations between the interaction FeP:substrate and the FeP catalytic activity previously observed for the iron(III) porphyrins in solution was also observed in these heterogeneous catalysis. The results obtained in this work show that anionic iron(III) porphyrins are efficient biomimetic catalysts for the oxidation of chloroquine by PhIO and H2O2, both when supported and in solution. Also, the catalyst ability to interact with the substrate has a strong influence on its activity and must be considered when studying other CYP-450 model systems.

Malária é uma doença causada por protozoários do gênero Plasmodium que causa um milhão de mortes anualmente. Quase 3 bilhões de pessoas vivem em áreas tropicais de risco de infecção com uma das 5 espécies evidenciando um problema mundial carente de solução imediata. Esse parasita apresenta um potencial para o rápido desenvolvimento de resistências contra os fármacos utilizados em seu tratamento, por isso uma das soluções preconizadas pela Organização Mundial de Saúde é o desenvolvimento de vacinas eficazes para seu controle.O objetivo desse trabalho foca-se no aperfeiçoamento de uma metodologia mais efetiva para a formulação de vacinas contra malária. Inicialmente no modelo roedor, foi utilizado o método de carregamento em nanopartículas lipossomais , com proteínas oriundas de merozoítos do gênero Plasmodium. Além da avaliação do potencial vacinal das nanopartículas (sobrevida/morbidade), avaliamos o efeito da vacina contra toxinas (por exemplo, domínios GPI). Concluímos de maneira concisa que proteolipossomos gerados com proteínas GPI ancoradas do gênero Plasmodium possuem efeitos notáveis em relação a controle de crescimento parasitológico, mostrando-se efetivo também em desafios de letalidade in vivo. No que diz respeito a aspectos que afetam humanos, os soros gerados contra proteínas do parasita são capazes de diminuir interleucinas relacionadas com sintomas graves e parecem ter grandes efeitos antiparasitários que se correlacionam diretamente com o perfil genético do hospedeiro imunizado em ensaios in vitro. / Malaria is a tropical disease caused by species of the protozoan Plasmodium and around one million people die of the disease each year, while 3 billion individuals live at risk to acquire infection with one of the five species known to infect humans. Due to the parasite\'s looming resistance against most of the antimalarial compounds used in therapy, the WHO preconizes the development of effective vaccine as an important goal. The purpose of this work was to evaluate the potential of a new method of vaccine formulation against malaria. Initially tested in the rodent model, we loaded liposomal nanostructures with merozoite-derived GPI-anchored proteins. We then monitored parameters such as survival and morbidity after challenge and measured the effect against parasite derived toxines. We observed significant effects in terms of control of parasitemy and in one model complete survival of mice. We also detected the generation of antiGPI antibodies which showed to be functional in decreasing TNF-<font face=\"Symbol\">a production in an in vitro model, however, we detected that this function was dependent on the genetic background of the antibody producing immunized animal.

Malária é uma doença causada por protozoários do gênero Plasmodium que causa um milhão de mortes anualmente. Quase 3 bilhões de pessoas vivem em áreas tropicais de risco de infecção com uma das 5 espécies evidenciando um problema mundial carente de solução imediata. Esse parasita apresenta um potencial para o rápido desenvolvimento de resistências contra os fármacos utilizados em seu tratamento, por isso uma das soluções preconizadas pela Organização Mundial de Saúde é o desenvolvimento de vacinas eficazes para seu controle.O objetivo desse trabalho foca-se no aperfeiçoamento de uma metodologia mais efetiva para a formulação de vacinas contra malária. Inicialmente no modelo roedor, foi utilizado o método de carregamento em nanopartículas lipossomais , com proteínas oriundas de merozoítos do gênero Plasmodium. Além da avaliação do potencial vacinal das nanopartículas (sobrevida/morbidade), avaliamos o efeito da vacina contra toxinas (por exemplo, domínios GPI). Concluímos de maneira concisa que proteolipossomos gerados com proteínas GPI ancoradas do gênero Plasmodium possuem efeitos notáveis em relação a controle de crescimento parasitológico, mostrando-se efetivo também em desafios de letalidade in vivo. No que diz respeito a aspectos que afetam humanos, os soros gerados contra proteínas do parasita são capazes de diminuir interleucinas relacionadas com sintomas graves e parecem ter grandes efeitos antiparasitários que se correlacionam diretamente com o perfil genético do hospedeiro imunizado em ensaios in vitro. / Malaria is a tropical disease caused by species of the protozoan Plasmodium and around one million people die of the disease each year, while 3 billion individuals live at risk to acquire infection with one of the five species known to infect humans. Due to the parasite\'s looming resistance against most of the antimalarial compounds used in therapy, the WHO preconizes the development of effective vaccine as an important goal. The purpose of this work was to evaluate the potential of a new method of vaccine formulation against malaria. Initially tested in the rodent model, we loaded liposomal nanostructures with merozoite-derived GPI-anchored proteins. We then monitored parameters such as survival and morbidity after challenge and measured the effect against parasite derived toxines. We observed significant effects in terms of control of parasitemy and in one model complete survival of mice. We also detected the generation of antiGPI antibodies which showed to be functional in decreasing TNF-<font face=\"Symbol\">a production in an in vitro model, however, we detected that this function was dependent on the genetic background of the antibody producing immunized animal.