Background: It is commonly assumed that there are clear lines of demarcation between anxiety and depressive disorders on the one hand and psychosis on the other. Recent evidence, however, suggests that this principle may be in need of updating. Methods: Depressive and/or anxiety disorders, with no previous history of psychotic disorder, were examined for the presence of psychotic symptoms in a representative community sample of adolescents and young adults (Early Developmental Stages of Psychopathology study; n=3021). Associations and consequences of psychotic symptomatology in the course of these disorders were examined in terms of demographic distribution, illness severity, onset of service use, and risk factors. Results: Around 27% of those with disorders of anxiety and depression displayed one or more psychotic symptoms, vs 14% in those without these disorders (OR 2.23, 95% CI 1.89–2.66, P < .001). Presence as compared with nonpresence of psychotic symptomatology was associated with younger age (P < .0001), male sex (P < .0058), and poorer illness course (P < .0002). In addition, there was greater persistence of schizotypal (P < .0001) and negative symptoms (P < .0170), more observable illness behavior (P < .0001), greater likelihood of service use (P < .0069), as well as more evidence of familial liability for mental illness (P < .0100), exposure to trauma (P < .0150), recent and more distant life events (P < .0006–.0244), cannabis use (P < .0009), and any drug use (P < .0008). Conclusion: Copresence of psychotic symptomatology in disorders of anxiety and depression is common and a functionally and etiologically highly relevant feature, reinforcing the view that psychopathology is represented by a network or overlapping and reciprocally impacting dimensional liabilities.

No description available.

No description available.

Social anxiety disorder is the fourth most prevalent mental disorder in the US. Over the past several decades, psychotherapeutic, specifically cognitive behavioral, and pharmacologic approaches have been found efficacious for social anxiety disorder. A number of meta-analyses have been conducted since 1995 examining the efficacy of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and/or pharmacotherapy for social anxiety disorder. Though there have been numerous trials in the past decade, no meta-analysis examining both psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy for social anxiety disorder has been published since 2001. For the present study, a comprehensive literature search produced 93 publications featuring 94 controlled trials (N = 11,503), which were included in the final analyses. We found a moderate to large effect size for all active treatments compared to control conditions. Significant heterogeneity among treatment effects was evident, largely accounted for by true variation between effects, versus standard error. Examination of potential study characteristic moderators indicated that treatment type (CBT, medication, combination), analysis type (intent-to-treat vs. completer), funding source, type of screening interview, type of treatment clinic (academic or private), version of diagnostic criteria, type of social anxiety sample (generalized social anxiety disorder only vs. mixed sample of generalized and specific social anxiety disorder) and type of inclusion/exclusion criteria related to other anxiety disorders were significant moderators. Publication type, inclusion/exclusion criteria related to depression and substance abuse/dependence, and full sample comorbidity with another disorder were not. Treatment type was no longer a significant moderator once control condition was accounted for. In psychotherapy trials, self-exposure (as compared to all other types of CBT) and psychotherapist training were significant moderators, whereas variables corresponding to treatment modality and delivery were not. Medication class and specific drug type were significant moderators for pharmacotherapy studies comparing an active treatment to a control condition. Head-to-head comparisons, which included trials comparing active treatments, indicated no differences between psychotherapy, medication, and the combination of the two. Further, social anxiety treatment had moderate to large effects on depression and quality of life. / Psychology

La presente investigación tiene como objetivo principal desarrollar un sistema experto que permita realizar el diagnóstico de trastorno de ansiedad, bajo la realización de los siguientes objetivos específicos: Definir las reglas que permitan perfilar mediante sus características claves el diagnóstico de trastorno de ansiedad, determinar la precisión del diagnóstico de trastorno de ansiedad y validar la funcionalidad del sistema experto con el especialista de la institución educativa. Con la aplicación de diversos recursos tecnológicos y la implementación de las reglas bajo la metodología Buchanan, se desarrolló un sistema experto con un motor de inferencia basado en reglas de conjunción hechas en el lenguaje Prolog, el cual brinda apoyo al momento de diagnosticar el trastorno de ansiedad. Con esto los estudiantes son diagnosticados o descartados en un menor tiempo. Logrando implementar un total de 236 reglas. Es así como, el sistema experto obtuvo una precisión del 94.7% en sus resultados, obteniendo solo tres falsos negativos de un total de 57 pruebas realizadas, bajo la supervisión de un psicólogo especialista y su experiencia, obteniendo así una correcta funcionalidad del software, diagnósticos confiables y sobre todo oportunos para que el psicólogo especialista brinde un tratamiento adecuado a los estudiantes de la institución educativa.

This revision of the 2005 British Association for Psychopharmacology guidelines for the evidence-based pharmacological treatment of anxiety disorders provides an update on key steps in diagnosis and clinical management, including recognition, acute treatment, longer-term treatment, combination treatment, and further approaches for patients who have not responded to first-line interventions. A consensus meeting involving international experts in anxiety disorders reviewed the main subject areas and considered the strength of supporting evidence and its clinical implications. The guidelines are based on available evidence, were constructed after extensive feedback from participants, and are presented as recommendations to aid clinical decision-making in primary, secondary and tertiary medical care. They may also serve as a source of information for patients, their carers, and medicines management and formulary committees.

Social anxiety disorder (SAD) is a common psychiatric disorder associated with considerable suffering. Cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) has been shown to be effective but a significant proportion does not respond or relapses, stressing the need of augmenting treatment. Using neuroimaging could elucidate the psychological and neurobiological interaction and may help to improve current therapeutics. To address this issue, functional and structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) were repeatedly conducted on individuals with SAD randomised to receive CBT or an active control condition. MRI was performed pre-, and post-treatment, as well as at one-year follow-up. Matched healthy controls were also scanned to be able to evaluate disorder-specific neural responsivity and structural morphology. This thesis aimed at answering three major questions. I) Does the brain’s fear circuitry (e.g., the amygdala) change, with regard to neural response and structural morphology, immediately after CBT? II) Are the immediate changes in the brain still present at long-term follow-up? III) Can neural responsivity in the fear circuitry predict long-term treatment outcome at the level of the individual? Thus, different analytic methods were performed. Firstly, multimodal neuroimaging addressed questions on concomitant changes in neural response and grey matter volume. Secondly, two different experimental functional MRI tasks captured both neural response to emotional faces and self-referential criticism. Thirdly, support vector machine learning (SVM) was used to evaluate neural predictors at the level of the individual. Amygdala responsivity to self-referential criticism was found to be elevated in individuals with SAD, as compared to matched healthy controls, and the neural response was attenuated after effective CBT. In individuals with SAD, amygdala grey matter volume was positively correlated with symptoms of anticipatory speech anxiety, and CBT-induced symptom reduction was associated with decreased grey matter volume of the amygdala. Also, CBT-induced reduction of amygdala grey matter volume was evident both at short- and long-term follow-up. In contrast, the amygdala neural response was weakened immediately after treatment, but not at one-year follow-up. In extension to treatment effects on the brain, pre-treatment connectivity between the amygdala and the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) was stronger in long-term CBT non-responders, as compared to long-term CBT responders. Importantly, by use of an SVM algorithm, pre-treatment neural response to self-referential criticism in the dACC accurately predicted (&gt;90%) the clinical response to CBT. In conclusion, modifying the amygdala is a likely mechanism of action in CBT, underlying the anxiolytic effects of this treatment, and the brain’s neural activity during self-referential criticism may be an accurate and clinically relevant predictor of the long-term response to CBT. Along these lines, neuroimaging is a vital tool in clinical psychiatry that could potentially improve clinical decision-making based on an individual’s neural characteristics. / Social ångest är en av de vanligaste psykiska sjukdomarna. Mer än en miljon svenskar bedöms lida av detta. Social ångest leder ofta till svåra konsekvenser för den som drabbas, men även ökade kostnader för samhället har noterats, t ex i form av ökad sjukfrånvaro. Även om många som drabbas inte söker hjälp så finns effektiva behandlingar för social ångest, både farmakologiska och psykologiska behandlingar rekommenderas av Socialstyrelsen. Kognitiv beteendeterapi (KBT) är en evidensbaserad och rekommenderad psykologisk behandling för social ångest. Trots att nuvarande interventioner är effektiva så är det fortfarande en andel individer som inte blir förbättrade. Det finns en stor andel studier som visar att individer med social ångest, i jämförelse med friska individer, karakteriseras av överdriven aktivitet i ett nätverk som har till uppgift att tolka och reagera på hotfull information. Denna aktivitet är lokaliserad i rädslonätverket där området amygdala spelar en central roll. Det finns ett behov att utveckla nuvarande behandlingar och denna avhandling syftar till att öka vår förståelse för en neurobiologisk verkningsmekanism bakom KBT för social ångest. I detta forskningsprojekt har magnetresonanstomografi (MRT) använts för att undersöka personer som lider av social ångest. Upprepade mätningar har genomförts, innan, efter, och vid uppföljning ett år efter ångestlindrande behandling. Utöver detta har individer som inte lider av social ångest undersökts för att förstå hur patienter skiljer sig från friska personer, men också för att undersöka om behandlingen normaliserar patientens hjärna. Under tiden som deltagarna undersöktes med MRT genomfördes två experiment för att ta reda på hur hjärnan reagerar på affektiv information. Deltagarna tittade på bilder med ansikten som uttrycker emotioner, t ex arga och rädda ansiktsuttryck, samt information som innehöll kritiska kommentarer riktade till personen själv eller någon annan, t ex ”ingen tycker om dig” eller ”hon är inkompetent”. Strukturella bilder på deltagarnas hjärnor har också samlats in vid varje mättillfälle. Utöver detta fick alla deltagare instruktioner om att de efter MRT skulle hålla en muntlig presentation inför en publik. Denna uppgift är oftast den värsta tänkbara för individer med social ångest, och syftet med uppgiften var att relatera hjärnans struktur och aktivitet till hur mycket ångest som individerna upplevde inför denna situation. I arbetet med denna avhandling har tre frågor ställts. a) Uppstår strukturella och funktionella förändringar i rädslonätverket direkt efter avslutad KBT (Studie I och II)? b) Är de tidiga förändringarna efter behandlingen även kvarstående ett år senare (Studie III)? c) Kan hjärnans reaktioner i rädslonätverket förutspå vilka individer som kommer att bli förbättrade av en ångestlindrande psykologisk behandling på lång sikt? Resultat från studierna i denna avhandling sammanfattas nedan: Reaktioner till självriktad kritik i amygdala är överdrivna hos individer med social ångest, i jämförelse med friska individer Reaktioner i amygdala minskar efter att individerna blivit behandlade med KBT och minskningarna korrelerar till minskade symptom av social ångest Den strukturella volymen av amygdala korrelerar positivt med hur mycket ångest individerna upplever inför en muntlig presentation, och minskningen av dessa symptom korrelerar även med hur mycket volymen av amygdala minskar efter KBT Minskningen av amygdalavolym och den samtidigt minskade reaktiviteten i amygdala till självriktad kritik är korrelerade. Medieringsanalyser antyder att det är den minskade volymen som driver förhållandet mellan minskad reaktivitet och minskad ångest inför att hålla en muntlig presentation Den strukturella minskningen av amygdala ses både direkt efter behandlingens avslut, men även vid uppföljning ett år senare. Hjärnans reaktivitet till självriktad kritik i amygdala minskar direkt efter behandling, men är inte kvarstående vid uppföljning ett år senare Kopplingen mellan hjärnans reaktivitet till självriktad kritik i amygdala och dorsala främre cingulum var starkare hos de som inte blev förbättrade (jämfört med de som blev bättre) av en ångestlindrande behandling på lång sikt Med hjälp av en stödvektormaskin (en. support vector machine learning) och ett mönster av hjärnaktivitet i dorsala främre cingulum innan behandling påbörjades, predicerades (med 92% träffsäkerhet) vilka individer som ett år senare var fortsatt förbättrade av en effektiv psykologisk behandling Utifrån dessa observationer är slutsatserna att strukturell och funktionell påverkan på amygdala är en möjlig neurobiologisk mekanism för minskad social ångest efter KBT, samt att reaktivitet i främre cingulum kan ge kliniskt relevant data om vem som kommer att bli förbättrad av en psykologisk behandling. Denna information kan potentiellt vara viktig i framtidens psykiatri för att utveckla existerande behandlingar, men även för att stödja klinikers beslutsfattande huruvida en viss individ bör erbjudas en specifik behandling eller ej. / <p>Illustration on the cover by Jan Lööf. Cover image printed with permission from Jan Lööf and Bonnier Carlsen Förlag. The cover was art directed by Staffan Lager.</p><p>The thesis is reprinted and the previous ISBN was 9789176856888.</p>

L’objectif de la présente thèse était de caractériser le sommeil d’un groupe clinique d’enfants et d’adolescents ayant un trouble d’anxiété comme diagnostic primaire et le comparer à un groupe témoin. Dans un premier temps, nous avons vérifié si le profil de la fréquence cardiaque nocturne des enfants et des adolescents pouvait être regroupé selon le diagnostic. Pour ce faire, la fréquence cardiaque nocturne de 67 adolescents anxieux et 19 sujets non anxieux a été enregistrée à l’aide d’un équipement ambulatoire. Les résultats de cette étude montrent que le profil de la fréquence cardiaque nocturne chez les enfants anxieux varie selon le diagnostic. Alors que les adolescents non anxieux montrent un profil de la fréquence cardiaque nocturne plat, on retrouve les associations suivantes chez les adolescents ayant un trouble anxieux : a) un profil croissant de la fréquence cardiaque chez les adolescents ayant un trouble d’anxiété de séparation; b) un profil décroissant de la fréquence cardiaque chez les adolescents ayant un trouble d’anxiété généralisé; c) un profil en forme de U chez les adolescents ayant un trouble d’anxiété sociale. De plus, une association significative a été observée entre le diagnostic et la présence de fatigue matinale. L’association d’un profil de la fréquence cardiaque nocturne avec un diagnostic d’anxiété suggère la présence d’une dysrégulation de la modulation chronobiologique du système nerveux autonome. Étant donné que le profil de la fréquence cardiaque nocturne s’exprime différemment selon le diagnostic, qu’en est-il de l’architecture du sommeil? Dans un deuxième temps, nous avons enregistré le sommeil en laboratoire d’un groupe clinique de 19 jeunes ayant un trouble d’anxiété comme diagnostic primaire, avec comorbidités et médication et comparé à 19 jeunes non anxieux. Les résultats de cette étude ont montré que les participants du groupe anxieux ont une latence au sommeil plus longue, une latence au sommeil paradoxal plus longue et une durée d’éveil plus longue lorsque comparé au groupe témoin. L’évaluation subjective de la qualité du sommeil chez le groupe d’adolescents anxieux montre que leur auto-évaluation reflète les valeurs enregistrées en laboratoire. Nous avons également observé chez le groupe anxieux une fréquence cardiaque moyenne plus élevée et un index plus élevé d’apnée-hypopnée, bien que non pathologique. Nous avons également observé une association positive entre l’anxiété de trait et l’indice d’apnée-hypopnée et la latence au sommeil, ainsi qu’une association positive entre l’anxiété manifeste et la latence au sommeil paradoxal. Ces résultats suggèrent que le sommeil chez cette population est altéré, que des signes d’hypervigilance physiologique sont présents et qu'une association existe entre ces deux paramètres. Finalement, dans la troisième étude de cette thèse, nous avons analysé l’activité cardiaque pendant le sommeil en utilisant les paramètres temporels et fréquentiels de la variabilité cardiaque chez un groupe clinique de dix-sept enfants et adolescents ayant un trouble d’anxiété comme diagnostic primaire avec comorbidité et médication, et comparé à un groupe non anxieux. Les résultats ont montré que les participants du groupe anxieux, lorsque comparés au groupe non anxieux, présentent des intervalles interbattements plus courts, un indice temporel de la variabilité cardiaque représentant la branche parasympathique moindre, une activité des hautes fréquences normalisées moindre et un ratio basse fréquence sur haute fréquence augmenté. Plusieurs corrélations ont été observées entre les mesures cliniques de l’anxiété et les mesures de la variabilité cardiaque. Ces résultats viennent ajouter à la littérature actuelle un volet descriptif clinique à ce jour non documenté, soit l’impact de l’anxiété pathologique chez un groupe clinique d’enfants et d’adolescents sur le processus normal du sommeil et sur la régulation de la fréquence cardiaque. En résumé, les résultats de ces trois études ont permis de documenter chez un groupe clinique d’enfants et d’adolescents ayant de l’anxiété pathologique, la présence d’une altération circadienne du profil de la fréquence cardiaque, d’une architecture altérée du sommeil ainsi qu’une dysrégulation du système nerveux contrôlant l’activité cardiaque. / The aim of this thesis was to characterize, in a clinical group of children and adolescents with anxiety disorder as a primary diagnostic, the sleep period and to compare it to a control group. Firstly, we have verified if the nocturnal sleep pattern of children and adolescents could be grouped by psychiatric disorders. Sixty-seven children and adolescents with anxiety disorders and nineteen non anxious match controls were monitored using ambulatory recording equipment. Results showed that nocturnal heart rate pattern of anxious adolescents would vary accordingly with the diagnosis. While non anxious adolescents exhibit a flat nocturnal heart rate pattern through the night, anxious participants showed the following associations: a) increased nocturnal heart rate pattern associated with separation anxiety disorder; b) decreased nocturnal heart rate pattern associated with generalized anxiety disorder; and c) U shape nocturnal heart rate pattern associated with social phobia. Moreover, a significant association was found between anxiety diagnosis and presence of morning fatigue. The association between nocturnal heart rate patterns with anxiety suggests that the circadian modulation of heart rate is dysregulated, but what about the sleep macrostructure? Secondly, we have monitored in a sleep laboratory a clinical sample of nineteen adolescents with pathological anxiety, comorbidity and medication, and compared it to nineteen non anxious match controls. Results showed that anxious participants had longer sleep latency, longer REM sleep latency and longer awake period during sleep when compared to control participants. Compared to control participants, anxious patients subjectively reported sleep disturbances, manifested objective sleep disorders and presented no adaptation to the laboratory environment. Moreover, higher nocturnal heart rate and higher apnea-hypopnea index were observed in anxious group when compared to non anxious group. Significant positive associations were observed between Trait anxiety and apnea-hypopnea index as well as for sleep latency while manifest anxiety was associated to REM sleep latency. Results suggest that sleep of children and adolescents with pathological anxiety is altered, that signs of physiological hypervigilance are observed and that both are associated. Following previous results, we have analyzed in a third study heart rate variability during nocturnal sleep using both, times and frequency domains in a clinical sample group of seventeen children and adolescents with anxiety disorder as primary diagnostic with comorbidity and medication. Results showed that anxious when compared to non anxious, had a shorter interbeat interval, and had lower rMSSD values, less high frequency in normalized units and higher low frequency/high frequency ratio. Correlations were observed between clinical anxiety scores and time and frequency domains of heart rate variability. These results add to the growing body of literature that pathological anxiety in a clinical group of children and adolescents impact on sleep process and heart rate regulation during sleep. Overall findings add to the growing body of recent clinical literature, a sleep alteration description of a clinical sample of children and adolescents. From the three studies of this thesis, results showed that circadian heart rate pattern is altered, that sleep architecture is altered, and that the time and frequency domain of nocturnal heart rate variability is altered in a clinical group of children and adolescents with pathological anxiety.

DSM-IV-TR classifies hypochondriasis as a complex somatoform disorder, characterised by physical complaints for which no organic cause could be identified. DSM-5 replaced it with two new diagnostic terms: somatic symptoms disorder and illness anxiety disorder. The distinction was based on the presence or absence of somatic symptoms, and concerns have been raised with regards to the validity of these new diagnostic concepts. While there has recently been an increase in recognising the role of the underlying anxiety in this condition, the psychological needs of individuals with hypochondriasis remain unclear. It is conceivable that specific emotional and interpersonal dimensions play a mediating role in the onset of hypochondriacal presentations, and have explanatory power with regards to the improvement of tailored therapeutic interventions. The present study used a mixed methodology, with an emphasis on the qualitative component, to investigate emotions and the interpersonal aspects of hypochondriasis. Six young adult females meeting the diagnostic criteria for both DSM-IV-TR hypochondriasis and DSM-5 illness anxiety disorder formed a clinical group for the present study. Semi-structured interviews were administered and analysed in line with the Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA). Four major themes emerged from the qualitative data: 1) Early life experience; 2) Inward focus; 3) Learned helplessness; and 4) Experience of psychological therapy. Eight subordinate themes were identified: (i) Unmet emotional needs; (ii) Emotional isolation; (iii) There is something wrong with me; (iv) Emotional reasoning; (v) Self-fulfilling prophecy; (vi) External locus of control; (vii) Over-reliance on other people; and (viii) The experience of psychological therapy. Fifty-one female undergraduate psychology students formed a matched comparison group for the study and enabled a supplementary quantitative analysis to be conducted. The quantitative measures included measures of trait (TEIQue-SF) and ability emotional intelligence (MSCEIT) as well as a measure of sociotropy-autonomy (SAS). The quantitative data showed that the clinical group scored significantly lower than the comparison group on the measures of trait emotional intelligence, understanding emotions, and autonomy. Additionally, the clinical group scored significantly higher than the comparison group on the measure of sociotropy. The theoretical and therapeutic recommendations are discussed in light of the limitations of the present study. In conclusion, emotional and interpersonal aspects of DSM-IV-TR Hypochondriasis and DSM-5 illness anxiety disorder in young women provide a useful framework for the conceptualisation and therapeutic management of these conditions. It appears that with its scientific knowledge base, therapeutic flexibility, focus on reflective practice, and the emphasis on an effective working relationship, the discipline of counselling psychology is well-suited to address the needs of participants with hypochondriacal presentations.

[pt] Sensibilidade à Ansiedade (ex: medo dos sintomas relacionados à ansiedade assim como a crença de que esses sintomas possam ter conseqüências desastrosas) é um importante constructo psicológico envolvido na etiologia de diferentes Transtornos de Ansiedade. O presente estudo avaliou as propriedades psicométricas e a estrutura fatorial da Escala de Sensibilidade à Ansiedade Revisada (ESA-R) em 585 pacientes brasileiros com diagnóstico primário de Transtorno de Ansiedade. Os resultados indicaram que a presente versão da ESAR possui boa consistência interna e boa correlação de coeficiente item-total. A análise fatorial exploratória sugeriu uma estrutura hierárquica composta por um fator único de primeira ordem e quatro fatores de segunda ordem relacionados a: 1) medo dos sintomas respiratórios e cardiovasculares, 2) medo de descontrole cognitivo, 3) medo que as reações de ansiedade sejam observadas publicamente, e 4) medo dos sintomas gastrintestinais. Os fatores de primeira e segunda ordem da ESA-R comparados com os diferentes grupos de Transtorno de Ansiedade indicaram que pacientes com Transtorno do Pânico apresentaram um escore significativamente mais elevados nas dimensões da ESA - R, com exceção para o fator de segunda ordem medo do descontrole cognitivo. / [en] Anxiety sensitivity (i.e., fear of anxiety-related symptoms due to the belief that these symptoms will produce harmful consequences) is an important psychological construct involved in the etiology of different anxiety disorders. The present study evaluated the psychometric proprieties and the factor structure of the Anxiety Sensitivity Index-Revised (ASI-R) among 585 Brazilian patients with primary anxiety disorder diagnosis. Results indicated that the present version of the ASI-R had good internal consistency and item-total correlation coefficients. Exploratory factor analyses suggested a hierarchical structure composed by a single higher-order factor and four lower-order factors related to 1) fear of respiratory and cardiovascular symptoms, 2) fear of cognitive dyscontrol, 3) fear of publicly observable anxiety reactions, and 4) fear of gastrointestinal symptoms. ASI-R higher- and lower-order factor scores comparisons across the different anxiety disorder groups indicated that panic disorder patients scored significantly higher in the ASI-R dimensions, except for the fear of cognitive dyscontrol lowerorder factor.