The growth of heterotrophic microbes in water distribution systems causes deteriorations in the quality of drinking water and increases corrosion of pipelines. Microbial growth in drinking water can also be prevented by efficient removal of nutrients required for microbial growth. The limiting nutrient for microbial growth in drinking water is supposed to be organic carbon or phosphorus. In central Europe and Northern America, microbial growth is generally limited by organic carbon, especially by a fraction called Assimilable Organic Carbon (AOC) The AOC test was first proposed by Van der Kooij, the water samples are collected in very clean, AOC-free glassware, and then heated to kill the indigenous bacterial population and inoculated with one or more test organisms. The sample is incubated, and growth of the test organisms is monitored. The stationary-phase level (Nmax) of bacteria is proportional to the amount of limiting nutrient in the water. The nutrient level in a sample is converted into carbon equivalents with an empirically derived yield coefficient of the organism for a selected growth substrate. Cell yield with may vary different carbon compounds. The time needed to perform the assay islimited by the incubation temperature, the inoculum density and sample volume. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to investigate the optimum conditions of AOC analysis to minimize the analytic time. Through this study, the results show that the optimum temperature is 20 ¢J, the optimum inoculum density is 400-500 CFU/mL, Biodegradable Total Organic Carbon (BTOC) and Biodegradable Organic Carbon (BDOC) test made AOC test without the need for plate count and increase the accuracy of AOC analysis.

The growth of the heterotrophic plate count in distribution system, causing deterioration of drinking water quality, is called biological re-growth or after-growth. There are many methods to solve above problems such as disinfecting and washing in pipeline. Among them, to lower the concentration of assimilable organic carbon(AOC) in drinking water under a certain level is showed the best control method for inhibiting the growth of microorganisms. AOC is showed as an item of the organic amounts by using microorganisms. The samples of water after disinfecting is took into bacterial of P17 and NOX. Then we measure the growth number counts of two kind of bacterial in their plate to transfer and obtain the concentration of AOC. In this study we investigate the variation of AOC in a tradition water treatment plant and its distribution system by using the results of sampling and analysis of the related items of water quality. Results showed the proportional of AOC-P17 was highest in contains of AOC. The removal of AOC during processes of water treatment was effectively found. But the pre-chlorination caused the increase of AOC level in water let the concentration of AOC be detected over 50£gg acetate-C/L in treated water and the distribution system. AOC level decreased with the increasing distance of distribution system. For the well relation with drinking water quality and treatment units, we should control the biological stability to obtain a good water quality of treated water. Finally we analysis 13 items of water quality by using AutoNet(6.03) with AOC to do the prediction model work. After data simulation and training analysis, three models of AOC prediction (denoted as WTP, Distribution system and WTP& Distribution system) were obtained. The comparisons of three models in inner and outer verification showed good correlation results as well.

Alors même que les politiques de maintien de la biodiversité favorisent la valorisation économique des races, la race locale devient un support fort de l'ancrage territorial des produits sous Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée (AOC). Une étude préliminaire confirme que l'obligation raciale est de plus en plus souvent incluse dans les règlements techniques des AOC mais montre la récurrence des tensions que cela suscite. Dans quelles conditions et avec quelle ampleur la mobilisation de certaines races dans des AOC entraîne-t-elle des modifications dans la gestion de ces races ? Nous avons choisi de considérer deux familles majeures de conditions : la répartition du poids des collectifs (race vs produit) dans la prise de décision, et la marge de manœuvre des éleveurs individuels dans leurs stratégies de réponse. Ce choix est testé sur trois objets de recherche identifiés : (i) l'évolution des objectifs de sélection et des programmes, (ii) la dynamique des pratiques de renouvellement des troupeaux et (iii) l'appropriation des races par les différents collectifs. Trois situations contrastées (espèce, ancienneté de la démarche, valorisation) sont retenues pour observer les pratiques des acteurs, recueillir leurs discours ainsi qu'une documentation technique et administrative : les fromages de vache dans les Alpes du Nord, le fromage de brebis dans les Pyrénées Atlantiques et la charcuterie de Corse. Ces situations ont été choisies non pas pour leur représentativité mais pour leur exemplarité dans l'expression des influences du couplage race-AOC. Le travail a été organisé en deux étapes : l'analyse des trois cas tout d'abord, cherchant à faire ressortir une traduction possible de la problématique et des pistes de réflexions par cas, puis une analyse comparative des réflexions issues de ces trois situations, visant à terme la construction d'un modèle plus général de compréhension des influences du couplage sur la gestion raciale. Nous observons la diversité d'influences quand est associée au critère racial une limite de performances : pour certains, cette association entraîne de façon systématique une modification des critères de sélection, alors que pour d'autres, une gestion individuelle par les pratiques d'élevage représente le levier privilégié. L'introduction d'un critère racial semble toutefois avoir un impact assez systématique sur le développement du marché des reproducteurs. Mais si l'augmentation de la demande en reproducteurs peut être un élément moteur à l'accroissement des effectifs de race, le risque de diminuer la pression de sélection des animaux reproducteurs demeure. Ces différents éléments montrent les influences possibles du couplage sur la gestion des races. Nous avons relevé 7 critères permettant de définir les conditions d'expression de ces influences, classés en fonction du type d'influence observé. Les critères liés à l'interaction entre les collectifs relèvent d'une influence directe : financement des collectifs, représentations croisées (personnes ayant une « double casquette »), répartition des effectifs de race. Les critères liés à la marge de manœuvre des éleveurs relèvent d'une influence indirecte : gamme des reproducteurs proposés, choix des reproducteurs, constitution du troupeau et pratiques d'alimentation. L'ensemble de ces critères nous permet de construire un modèle qui, sans prétendre être prédictif, peut aider à l'intelligibilité des situations nouvelles. Enfin, on s'intéresse, à une échelle plus globale, à la notion d'appropriation de la ressource. L'appropriation de la race par un collectif AOC peut être bénéfique au développement de cette ressource, mais des situations extrêmes montrent aussi les risques d'accaparement. Nous proposons ainsi certaines pistes pour nourrir ces réflexions d'ordre général sur la conservation et la valorisation des races locales.

In the process of traditional water treatment, the humic acid and fulvic acid can be oxidized by chlorination; besides, it also produces small molecular organic compounds at the same time. Coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation can reduce the concentration of the Assimilable Organic Carbon (AOC) significantly. An example of Ping-Ding water treatment plant was performed with sampling twelve times monthly from December 2008 to November 2009, the strong influence of chlorine, and coagulation, flocculation on the AOC can be observed. Comparing to the removal efficiency of water process in Ping-Ding water treatment plant, the AOC presented much stably in the distribution systems. We observed the data on the mean concentration of monthly sampling related to the operation unit in the water treatment plant. The Total Organic Carbon (TOC), and the Dissolved Organic Carbon (DOC) had the same trend with AOC in the water treatment process; it showed that TOC, and DOC had well relation to AOC in Ping-Ding water treatment plant. However, scrutinizing single monthly sampling, we found that the concentration of AOC did not fix out with the concentration of TOC and DOC at the same time. Therefore, results indicate that the AOC is mainly related to the smaller organic molecules of the TOC. In the series of sampling, we divided the influence of climate factor into the dry season and the pour season. The research discussed the five analysis items in the final results and discussion¡GTOC, DOC, UV254, UV254/DOC, and AOC. Basically, the concentration of the five analysis items on the pour season is higher than the dry season; it indicates that the raw water¡¦s concentration of organic carbon in Ping-Ding water treatment plant is higher during raining days. This can express the high concentration of the UV254, UV254/DOC, and AOC in water treatment plant in our work.

The David L. Tippin Water Treatment Facility (DLTWTF) serving the city of Tampa, Florida is an advanced drinking water treatment facility consisting of coagulation/flocculation, ozonation, granular activated carbon biofiltration, and disinfection by chloramine. New regulations and the recent economic crisis pushed the facility to investigate methods to decrease costs and meet regulatory requirements easier. The two major issues identified as priorities for investigation were the optimization of the biofiltration system and the use of a novel process to reduce the formation of bromate during ozonation. Optimization of the biofiltration system is needed to remove more of the assorted particles that cause biofilms, nitrification in the distribution system, and high chloramine demand. Previous work improved the removal of particles that cause biofilms and nitrification, but was not able address the removal of particles that cause high chloramine demand to a satisfactory degree. Possible factors affecting this high chloramine decay were identified and evaluated at the pilot scale, including filter depth, chloramination of filter backwash water, media material, and nutrient addition. Non-chlorinated backwash water reduced chloramine demand by approximately 30% for GAC filters, and by approximately 50% for anthracite. Generally, anthracite performed slightly worse than GAC. Nutrient addition showed no effect. Filter depth improved chloramine decay, but not significantly enough to warrant the increased material required Bromate control is necessary to prevent the formation of bromate, a regulated carcinogen. Traditional bromate control methods use pH depression. While effective, at the DLTWTF, this forces the increased use of more expensive caustic soda over lime for raising the pH of process water. A novel process known as the chlorine-ammonia process was investigated at the bench scale to identify the ideal ratio of chlorine and ammonia to decrease the formation of bromate to ensure regulatory compliance and allow greater use of lime to decrease costs. The best ratio in this study is 0.45 mg/L NH3 to 0.75 mg/L Cl2 which produced 1.09 ppb bromate at a CT of 6.8 min*mg/L, representing a 84% improvement over the control.

Fortement ébranlés par les crises alimentaires de la dernière décennie, les consommateurs regagnent progressivement confiance dans la qualité sanitaire des viandes bovines. Cependant, ces évènements ont renforcé de nouvelles demandes en faveur d'une meilleure connaissance de l'origine de la viande liée au lieu et aux modes de production. Pourtant, contrairement à d'autres produits alimentaires, peu de projets ont aujourd'hui vu le jour pour qualifier ainsi la viande. Pour comprendre cette carence, point de départ de notre réflexion, il faut se pencher de façon globale sur les obstacles à la différenciation des viandes bovines. Le principal obstacle est lié à la complexité du circuit de commercialisation et aux manques de communication entre les différentes parties prenantes de la filière. Dans ces conditions, il est difficile de transporter l'origine de l'animal jusqu'au morceau de viande. En conséquence, la construction de l'origine des viandes consiste à mettre en connexion les différents métiers et leurs savoir-faire respectifs afin d'assurer le lien entre l'animal, sa carcasse et sa viande. Néanmoins, ce couplage n'est pas spontané. Il nécessite la construction d'accords entre les professionnels qui se concrétisent autour de dispositifs techniques spécifiquement dédiés au transport de l'origine (grille d'évaluation des animaux ou des carcasses, cahier des charges, commission interprofessionnelle, mode d'abattage, type de découpe). Pour mener à bien ce travail, nous nous sommes appuyés sur l'observation des fonctionnements techniques des éleveurs et des bouchers engagés dans cinq démarches de certification, en Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée concernant près de 10.000 animaux. Nous avons exploré les différentes modalités qui permettent aux dispositifs techniques d'assurer la mise en connexion entre les savoir-faire des professionnels. Une première analyse a consisté à préciser, pour chaque type d'animal les savoir-faire mobilisés par les différentes catégories professionnelles (éleveurs et bouchers au sens large) pour élever leurs animaux puis pour transformer les carcasses en morceau de viande. Pour cela, nous avons développé une méthodologie spécifique pour l'analyse des savoir-faire (en particulier ceux des bouchers) qui cherche à donner un sens aux actes de découpe. Ce travail a nécessité une centaine d'enquêtes, des suivis d'activités et le filmage d'opérateurs en situation de travail puis le recueil de ses commentaires ex post par auto-confrontation et confrontations croisées (8 situations au total). Cette exploration nous a permis de repérer parmi l'ensemble des savoir-faire inclus dans les pratiques de découpe, ceux spécifiquement locaux qui concourent à la qualification de l'origine des viandes. Dans un second temps, nous avons modélisé, dans ces différentes situations, plusieurs voies de transport de l'origine de l'animal vif au morceau de viande : - Dans certains cas, la carcasse est informative et les dispositifs techniques sont principalement orientés autour de sa qualification. Les modes de découpe de la viande sont dans ce cas très importants pour révéler le potentiel de typicité des viandes dans ses différentes utilisations gastronomiques. - Dans d'autres, la carcasse n'est pas informative du type de viande. Autrement dit, ce type de carcasse n'offre pas de repères décidables sur l'origine de l'animal et de sa viande. Ainsi, l'animal vif est directement mis en connexion avec sa viande. L'accord entre les éleveurs et les bouchers sur le type d'animal qui convient est dans ce cas essentiel, et non plus la découpe, pour produire un animal sur mesure. Quelle que soit la voie de transport de l'origine choisie, la mise en connexion nécessaire des métiers exige que les parties prenantes de la filière réinventent une "solidarité" technique que les dispositifs techniques de filière existants ont eu tendance à effacer.

In response to organic contaminations pollutating water sources of drinking water, domestic water treatment plants (WTP) were transforming from traditional chlorination disinfecton method to advanced ozone-based disinfection processes. However, the effectiveness of water purification procedures n removing AOC (Assimilable Organic Carbon) and DBPsFP (Disinfection By-Products Formation Potential) can be improved. Additionally, the quality of clean water purified at WTP may deteriorate in the water distribution network for various reasons, primarily resulting from the regrowth of microorganisms in the water distribution pipelines. This study investigates and researches the essential water quality items of effluent before and after the advanced water purification treatment plants and water movement to end users through water distribution networks. The investigation proceeded in four directions: (1) the efficiency of removing AOC from raw water using powdered and granular activated carbon biological systems, and the development of an AOC prediction model based on water quality monitoring items using the AutoNet (6.03) method of the artificial neural network system; (2) removal of the byproducts of disinfection from raw water using powdered activated carbon biological systems; (3) examining the relationship between ozone-based and chlorination-based water disinfection methods by comparing the number of coliform bacteria and total bacteria population in traditional and advanced processing units; (4) regarding the water distribution storage facilities for users, water reservoir towers were examined for water quality sampling and analysis and water tower cleaning frequencies. Regression analysis was performed using SPSS ¡]Statistical Product and Service Solutions¡^ statistical software, with the correlation coefficient denoting the closeness of relationships. We anticipate understanding the water quality situation for current users of tap water, and demands for cleaning frequencies, thereby achieving the purpose of improving drinking water safety. Regarding the efficiency of removing AOC from raw water, the results showed powdered and granular activated carbon biological systems performed well, with the AOC removal rate reaching 53% and 54%, respectively, and the SUVA (Specific Ultraviolet Absorbance) value (showed by UV254/DOC) being reduced by 15-18% and 22-23%, respectively. The correlation analysis of the AOC prediction model shows that the GAC (Granular Activated Carbon) had high predictive and actual value R values (R2 = 0.772) after model regressing, and the PAC (Powder Activated Carbon) had higher predictive and actual value R values (R2 = 0.856) after model regressing as well. That the PAC system AOC prediction model has a slightly higher correlation that may be attributed to water contaminations resulting from domestic sewage, agricultural fertilizers, and livestock excretions. In the use of powdered activated carbon biological systems to remove disinfection byproducts, THMsFP (Trihalomethanes Formation Potential) and HAAsFP (Haloacetic acids Formation Potential) functioned with a certain removal efficiency, with the average effluent concentrations being under the regulatory standard of 80£gg/L, respectively, which reduces carcinogenic risks. Correlation analyses conducted using SUVA on the three water quality concentrations (HAA5FP, HAA9FP, and THMsFP) obtained R2 values of 0.805, 0.820, and 0.823, respectively, indicating high levels of correlation. For the results of microbial assessment using ozone and chlorine to process drinking water, the advanced and conventional WTP achieved a removal rate greater than 99% for microbial removal (coliform bacteria and total bacteria population). The correlation analysis between cleaning frequencies and water quality parameters showed the frequency at which the water reservoirs and towers were cleaned has a significant impact on tap water quality in residential compounds and schools that accommodated more than 100 households or less than 99 households. Higher cleaning frequency (more than four cleanings a year) results in better the water quality.

Cheng-Ching Lake water treatment plant (CCLWTP), the largest water treatment plant in southern Taiwan serving the Kaoping region, uses the Kaoping River water as the source water. The plant has encountered both technical and managerial challenges to implement advanced water treatment system since 2004 in order to provide high quality drinking water to the residents living in the Kaoping metropolitan area and to meet future stringent drinking water standards. Granular activated carbon (GAC), derived from wood, bituminous coal, lignite, or other carbon-containing materials, and is the most widely utilized adsorbent for treating water and wastewater. It is usually used after the sand filtration process in water or wastewater treatment plant; the exhausted GAC is re-activated by a combustion process. Moreover, biological activated carbon (BAC) filtration (biofiltration) has become one of the advanced treatment techniques applied in the water treatment plant. In general, BAC offers a large internal surface area for the adsorption of taste, odor, and color compounds, excess chlorine, toxic and mutagenic substances (e.g., bromide, chlorinated organic compounds, including trihalomethanes), trihalomethane precursors, pesticides, phenolic compounds, dyes, toxic metals, and substances that cause biological after growth. After the biofiltration process, a final disinfection is necessary to ensure the microbial quality of the treated water. Because biofiltration is usually not capable of removing biorefractory substances, pre-oxidation with ozone is usually applied for oxidizing the most biorefractory organic matters and also improving their biodegradability before the water is treated in the BAC process. Hence, using ozone pre-oxidation will greatly enhances the effectiveness of the subsequent BAC process. The CCLWTP effluent meets the current drinking water quality established by Taiwan Environmental Protection Administration (TEPA). However, the microbial regrowth due to the residual minute quantity of organic carbons causes pipe corrosion, and the formation of disinfectant by-products (DBPs) in the distribution system leading to potential contaminations of the clean water after it enters into the distribution system. Thus, monitoring the water quality in water distribution systems necessity to develop appropriate strategies for managing both the treatment plant and following distribution systems. Chlorine is often used in municipal water treatment plant for disinfecting drinking water; it can react with naturally occurring organic matter to form trihalomethanes (THMs), e.g. chloroform, bromodichloromethane, chlorodibromomethane and bromoform that causes long-term health hazards to consumers through oral ingestion, dermal absorption and inhalation. The lifetime cancer risk and the hazard index of THMs through oral ingestion, dermal absorption, and inhalation exposure from tap water in 9 districts in Kaohsiung City are estimated. In the first part of this study, water samples were periodically collected from each treatment process of Cheng-Ching Lake Water Treatment Plant (CCLWTP) to assess the AOC (assimilable organic carbon) removal. In the second part of this study, the role of BAC filtration used in advanced water treatment plant and its capability to remove pollutants (AOC, bromide, bromate, and iron) were evaluated. Additionally, the efficiency of biofiltration process using GAC and anthracite as the fillers was also assessed with a bench-scale GAC adsorption column. In third part of the study, the distribution system of CCLWTP was selected for conducting the case study for understanding the fate and transport of water quality indicators in the distribution system. The last part of the study concentrated on undertaking multipathway exposure assessment based on the concentrations of various THMs found in the water samples collected at various locations of Kaohsiung City water supply system. The AOC removal efficiency of the advanced water treatment processes of the CCL was assessed using data collected in the field during the first phase of this study. However, the effect of two different filling materials on the efficiency of biofiltration process was evaluated using a laboratory bench-scale column study. Results of both laboratory study and field investigation show that a significant AOC removal efficiency was achieved by the BAC system implemented in CCLWTP. Conclusions of this study are summarized as follows: 1. Significant AOC removal efficiency was achieved in CCLWTP and the AOC concentrations in the effluent could meet the current established standards. 2. The increased AOC concentrations after the treatment of preozonation and chlorination may be caused by the oxidation of organic matters to more biodegradable and assimilable products. 3. The removal of AOC is correlated with the decrease in concentrations of other drinking water indicators, e.g., coliform, TPC, TDS, and particle counts). 4. The addition of sodium thiosulfate in water samples could enhance the performance of the AOC analysis (the accuracy and reliability). 5. The BAC filtration has been demonstrated to play an important role in the removal of the trace AOC. Thus, the application of BAC for AOC removal is feasible and should be included as a required treatment unit in the advanced WTP. The field study completed in the second part assessed the removal efficiencies of AOC and other water quality indicators in CCLWTP, while the effects of using two different filling materials on the efficiency of biofiltration process and microorganisms growing were evaluated using a laboratory bench-scale column study. Conclusions of this study include the following: 1. The BAC filtration system is capable of removing trace pollutants including organics and metals. 2. Significant overall treatment efficiency can be achieved in the CCLWTP, and concentrations of the water quality indicators in the effluent will meet the drinking water standards established by TEPA. 3. The increased AOC concentrations after ozonation and chlorination processes may be caused by the oxidation of organic matters into more biodegradable and assimilable organic products. 4. GAC is a more appropriate filling material than anthracite in the biofiltration system for the removal of AOC. 5. More microorganisms were observed in GAC column than in BAF column. This may be due to the effect that GAC has more specific surface area than anthracite. Additionally, more microbial growth was observed at depth of 5 cm than 0 and 40 cm in both columns indicating that 5 cm below the column surface is rich in both dissolved oxygen and biodegradable that causes higher microbial populations. 6. The BAC filtration plays an important role in the removal of the trace AOC; it should be included as a required treatment unit in future advanced WTP. Additionally, the BAF filtration column filled with anthracite is not as effective as the GAC-filled column in removing AOC. Thus, GAC should be used for the proposed BAF filtration unit. 7. The oxidation process using ozone will increase the amount of carbonyl group organics in the oxidized water leading to poor biological stability. Therefore, the oxidation should be combined with a subsequent GAC or biological process to minimize the AOC formation potential. The third study, Using the oxidation/reduction potential (ORP) along with other water quality parameters to indicate the water quality in the CCLWTP distribution systems was assessed and focused. Behavior of water quality parameters by monitor and investigate was made a replacement of corrosive pipe line. The results reveal that the treated water leaving CCLWTP (clear water) meets the drinking water standards in Taiwan. However, the water is re-contaminated by a number of factors including the corrosion of old pipes while it is flowing in the distribution system. Major conclusions of this study are summarized in the following sections: 1. The free residual chlorine concentration in CCLWTP distribution system is adequate to meet the drinking water standards established by TEPA. 2. The residual AOC concentration is well correlated with the TOC concentration in the samples collected at various sites in different administrative areas. 3. Ratios of AOC/TOC in six administrative areas were higher than 9%, indicating that the biofilms were fall and increased organic matter of tap water distribution systems. 4. The average AOC concentrations were increased with followed variations of UV-254 value. 5. A number of factors (AOC, pH, redox potential, TOC, UV-254, and chlorine residual) control the growth of microorganisms on pipe surfaces. 6. DO have a negative relationship between THMs and HAAs concentrations. Because that oxygen have higher electronegative than chlorine and bromine, and apt utilization of organic carbon. 7. Results were shown of pH, DO and ORP had a positive relationship (Need to be more specific about the correlationship. 8. Major chemical reactions in the distribution system involve both electrons and protons transfers; they are pH- and Eh (ORP)-dependent. Therefore, chemical reactions in pipe net often can be characterized by pH and Eh together with the activity of dissolved chemical species. 9. The results reveal that the non-scaling water in LSI of distribution systems of CCL close to saturation (LSI = 0) (Cannot be understood). As show the other results, located K and M1 areas in LSI¡@were -0.002 and -0.012, respectively. The appearance of the pipe in K and M1 areas were corrosion and undersaturated with CaCO3 (needs to be re-written). 10. The RSI value was between 7.0 and 7.5 showing potential corrosion and prioritizes replacement of the pipe. 11. The DO value has a correlation with the reverse in Fe and Fe3+ concentrations. 12. High oxidation conditions and elevated Fe3+ concentrations of exist inside the corrosion scales of the corroded water distribution pipes. 13. The Fe concentrations in the samples collected in various administrative areas exceed the TEPA drinking water standards. 14. The appearance of CCL distribution system of shows severe corrosive and oxidized conditions. The last part of this study concentrated on evaluating the association between trihalomethanes (THMs) exposure through three different pathways and long-term health risks. The results show that the consumer has a higher risk of cancer through Inhalation route. This is different from the results reported by other research. Because most residents living in Taiwan are accustomed to drinking boiled water, the lifetime cancer risks through oral ingestion of water-borne CHBrCl2, and CHBr2Cl in tap water in all 9 districts were higher than 10-6. By oral ingestion the lifetime cancer risk for total THMs was highest in the 7th district, while the lowest lifetime cancer risk for total THMs was in the 4th district. Chloroform poses a higher cancer risk to Kaohsiung City residents through dermal exposure than the other three THMs. This study showed that residents in 7th district had the highest cancer risk through inhalation of chloroform among the 9 districts, and the residents in 6th district had the least cancer risk. Residents in 7th district has the highest risk of cancer due to exposure of THMs during showering and bathing as compared with residents in 4th district Males have a higher cancer risk than females through dermal absorption when exposed to THMs. The results of noncarcinogenic risk assessment for THMs indicate that if the main pathways are through oral ingestion and dermal absorption, 7th district has the highest hazard index of the four chemicals, while 4th district has the lowest hazard index. According to the above results, the quality of drinking water in Kaohsiung City is in general in accordance with the guidelines for drinking water quality as recommended by the World Health Organization. A better drinking water quality can be achieved by reducing the quantity of disinfection by-products (DBPs) through the removal of DBP precursors using modified treatment practices. Coagulation, granular activated carbon, membranes and ozone-biofiltration can all remove natural organic matter. Additionally, source water protection and control are effective non-treatment alternatives to control water-borne precursors. Optimized applications of disinfectants as primary and secondary disinfectants can further be implemented to control DBPs. Although research efforts continue to develop new treatment methods that will reduce the levels of DBPs during disinfection, it is generally accepted that risks to health caused by water-borne DBPs in drinking water are relative small in comparison with risks associated with water-borne diseases due to inadequate disinfection. Thus, it is important that the disinfection process should not be compromised in attempting to control water borne DBPs. The predominant DBPs group has been shown to be THMs, with chloroform and BDCM as the most dominant THMs. Although THMs are only one subgroup of the many DBPs formed during chlorination, they are useful as indicators of the overall DBP formation. It is concluded that, given the current state of knowledge, a risk assessment based on THMs would provide the greatest level of confidence regarding the ability of a drinking water guideline to protect against risks of cancer and other long-term health hazards. In conclusion, in order to reduce the cancer risk and hazard as indexed by THM concentrations in the drinking water, some methods could be used including controlling to reduce THMs precursors and microbial contaminants in raw water, and aged pipeline, optimizing all treatment processes to ensure that concentrations of disinfectant are adequate, using alternative disinfectants and reducing water age in distribution system. The potential human risks associated with drinking water disinfection are largely unknown, even though some information is available from toxicological and epidemiological studies. More research is needed to determine the risks associated with DBPs. The next progress will facilitate a more realistic assessment of risk due to drinking water contaminants without increasing the levels of uncertainty in risk estimates.

Le terme de terroir est utilisé en France depuis déjà plusieurs siècles. Il faut cependant attendre le début des années 2000 pour que l’Organisation Internationale de la Vigne et du Vin (OIV) lui octroie une définition adaptée au secteur vitivinicole. Le terroir fut alors défini comme, « un concept qui se réfère à un espace sur lequel se développe un savoir collectif, des interactions entre le milieu physique et biologique identifiable et les pratiques vitivinicoles appliquées, qui confèrent des caractéristiques distinctives aux produits originaires de cet espace ». Ainsi semblait se dessiner un axe de qualification du terroir en fonction des caractéristiques scientifiques, les facteurs naturels et humains, déjà connus de l’appellation d’origine protégée (AOP). Cet engouement naissant pour la qualification de produits vitivinicoles du terroir trouve très certainement son origine dans l'utilisation abusive actuelle des AOP dont le nombre va croissant. Cette définition dépourvue de tout effet juridique fragilise cependant sa pérennité. Tout l’enjeu est alors d’identifier les contours scientifiques qui déterminent le terroir pour envisager par la suite un cadre juridique. A partir d’une démarche de juxtaposition des facteurs naturels et humains à l'instar de ce que l'on observe pour les AOP, il sera question de mettre en évidence les facteurs scientifiques induits par le cahier des charges indispensable à la qualification juridique du terroir. La contre-productivité des solutions envisagées pour encadrer juridiquement la théorie du terroir au regard des dénominations géographiques existantes sera ainsi mise en évidence. / The term terroir has been used in France for several centuries. However, it was not until the early 21st century that it received a definition specific to the wine sector from the International Organisation of Vine and Wine (OIV). The OIV defines terroir as a concept referring to an “area in which collective knowledge of the interactions between the identifiable physical and biological environment and applied vitivinicultural practices develops, providing distinctive characteristics for the products originating from this area”. This implies an axis of qualification of terroir reflecting scientific characteristics, as well as natural and human factors, already contained in the notion of appellation d’origine contrôlée (AOC). This nascent enthusiasm for the use of terroir to designate vitivinicultural products most probably stems from the tendency to overuse AOPs, whose number is relentlessly increasing. But this definition, which cannot claim genuine legal foundations, undermines its enduring nature. The challenge is therefore to identify the scientific outlines of the definition of terroir, with a view to establishing a legal framework. Building on a juxtaposition of natural and human factors in the same way as AOPs, we highlight the implied scientific factors within the specifications necessary for the legal qualification of terroir. We then argue that the solutions envisaged to legally frame the theory of the terroir can be counterproductive in view of existing geographical indications.

No description available.