abstract: This study investigated the effect of two different preparation methods on hitting performance in a high&ndashfidelity; baseball batting simulation. Novice and expert players participated in one of three conditions: observation (viewing a video of the goal action), visualization (hearing a script of the goal action), or a no&ndashpreparation; control group. Each participant completed three different hitting tasks: pull hit, opposite&ndashfield; hit, and sacrifice fly. Experts had more successful hits, overall, than novices. The number of successful hits was significantly higher for both the observation and visualization conditions than for the control. In most cases, performance was best in the observation condition. Experts demonstrated greater effects from the mental preparation techniques compared to novices. However, these effects were mediated by task difficulty. The difference between experts and novices, as well as the difference between the observation and visualization conditions was greater for the more difficult hitting task (opposite&ndashfield; hitting) than for the easier hitting task (sacrifice fly). These effects of mental preparation were associated with significant changes in batting kinematics (e.g., changes in point of bat/ball contact and swing direction). The results indicate that mental preparation can improve directional hitting ability in baseball with the optimal preparation methods depending on skill&ndashlevel; and task difficulty. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.S. Applied Psychology 2010

This thesis focuses on the development of a robotic device to be used in parallel with observational learning techniques for facilitating the recovery of the upper limb in post-stroke patients. It has been shown in the existing observational learning literature that observational practice for the execution of goal-directed single arm movements can engage the mirror neuron system and motor areas involved in learning motor actions. On the other hand, robotic-based therapy protocols have proven successful in which participants are able to learn the required perception-action skill. However, robotics have not been overly successful in the generalization of learning to other tasks and this is an essential aspect on improving performance on Activities of Daily Life (ADL). Observational learning of motor skills has been shown to produce transfer across limbs and generalization across muscle groups in the same limb, as well as transfer to perceptual tasks. Therefore, our long-term hypothesis is that a combination of interactive robotics and action observation techniques might offer a greater benefit regarding transfer to ADLs in comparison to pure robotic training. The results from this research broaden the theoretical understanding of observational learning and drive the future development of rehabilitation protocols using the combination of robotic and observational learning techniques. We hypothesize that if the application of these techniques, for non-stroke individuals, yield benefits for the learning of motor/skill actions, then such paradigm will serve as a foundation in the future development of methods for facilitating the recovery of upper limb function after stroke.

<p>Recent efforts to explain the underlying mechanisms of action observation have resulted in several theoretical frameworks. The Common Coding framework proposes that the perception and action areas of the brain share representations of visual and motor feedback such that areas are activated concurrently, there is a benefit to an individual’s perceptual ability and confidence. The MOSAIC framework, on the other hand, proposes that these benefits derive from self generations of motor commands during voluntary movement. This study aimed to observe the effects of concurrent motor activity on perceptual ability and judgments of performance. Participants observed an animated avatar performing pairs of symbol tracings on a screen. Participants were also placed into one of three concurrent movement groups: voluntary concurrent symbol tracing, non-voluntary concurrent symbol tracing or observation (no concurrent symbol tracing). It was expected that the group with voluntary concurrent movement would exhibit a higher perceptual accuracy and greater ability to judge performance than both the non-voluntary concurrent movement group and the observation group. However, all participants demonstrated the same level of perceptual accuracy, regardless of the level of concurrent movement. The decreased ability for voluntary movement participants was likely due to significant movement initiation time delays associated with cognitive processing of visual stimuli. As such, voluntary participants did not move in synchrony with the display. Nevertheless, both movement groups had a greater ability of judging performance, suggesting that judgments of performance may be obtained using different pathways than those involved in perceptual accuracy. Findings support both the Common Coding and MOSAIC frameworks, suggesting that a perceptual benefit can only be obtained when movement is in synchrony with perception.</p> / Master of Science (MSc)

Mentalistic inference, the process of deducing others’ mental states from behaviour, is a key element of social interactions, especially when challenges arise. Just by observing an action or listening to a verbal description of it, adults and infants are able to make robust and rapid inferences about an agent’s intentions, desires, and beliefs. This thesis considers perspectives from Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs) and large language models, specifically GPT models. Individuals with ASDs struggle to read intentions from movements, but the mechanisms underlying these difficulties remain unknown. In a set of experiments, we employed combined motion tracking, psychophysics, and computational analyses to examine intention reading in ASDs with single-trial resolution. Single-trial analyses revealed that challenges in intention reading arise from both differences in kinematics between typically developing individuals and those with ASD, and a diminished sensitivity in reading intentions to variations in movement kinematics. This aligns with the idea that internal readout models are tuned to specific action kinematics, supporting the role of sensorimotor processes in shaping cognitive understanding and emphasizing motor resonance, a key aspect of embodied cognition. Targeted trainings may enhance and improve this ability. In a second set of experiments, we compared Theory of Mind, a core feature of mentalistic inference, in GPT models and a large sample of human participants. We found that GPT models exhibited human-level abilities in detecting indirect requests, false beliefs, and misdirection, but failed on faux pas. Rigorous hypothesis testing enabled us to show that this failure was apparent and was linked to a cautious approach in drawing conclusions rather than from an inference deficit. Collectively, the results presented in this thesis suggest that the convergence of insights from clinical research and advancements in technology is essential for fostering a more inclusive understanding of mentalistic inferences.

No description available.

Sense of agency (SoA) is defined as the subjective experience of being in control of our own actions. This attribution of control underpins all human action and is a vital aspect of the experience of being human. This systematic review sought to address whether intentional binding (IB), a proxy of SoA, can be found during observation of other-generated actions. This was done by investigating the current state of research in the field. Past studies are inconclusive in regards to what factors play into the formation of SoA and the motivation behind this review was to provide a conclusion regarding IB from observed actions. The studies featured in this review found that the IB effect was present in different procedures and contexts which highlights the flexible nature of SoA. Most importantly, this systematic review concluded that IB can and does occur during the observation of other-generated actions. Furthermore, this review found that social influence has an effect on SoA in both human- and robot-observations. We also found that the IB effect manifests in the absence of voluntary actions but to a lesser degree. However, the magnitude of the IB effect varied across studies where one found IB to be greater during action observation than self-generated actions, whilst another study found a weaker IB effect for action observation. Finally, this review provides a discussion on theories that best explain this phenomena, the neural evidence behind action observation, and what implications the findings could have for SoA as a whole

Background Although trainers and athletes consider ‘good timing skills’ to be critical for optimal sport performance, little is known in regard to how sport-specific skills may benefit from timing training. Thus, assuming that all motor performances are mediated by an internal timing mechanism, enhanced motor timing is expected to have positive effects on both planning and execution of movement performance, and consequently on complex sports actions as golf or soccer. Accordingly, in order to increase our knowledge of the importance of motor timing and possible effects of timing training, this thesis examines the effects of synchronized metronome training (SMT), thought to improve the execution of motor programs and to enhance motor skills in golf and soccer players. Methods Study I examined the effects of SMT on motor timing abilities and its potential effect on golf shot accuracy and consistency in 25 experienced male golfers. Additionally, Study II examined the effects of SMT on the spatiotemporal movement organisation and dynamics of the golf swing performance, as captured by kinematic measurements and analyses in thirteen male golfers. Study III examined the effect of SMT on accuracy and variability in a soccer specific, cross-pass task in elite and sub-elite female soccer players. Moreover, the underlying brain activity was assessed by means of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to investigate the corresponding neural activity when passively observing the cross-pass task, and the possible pre- to post training effects. Results SMT was shown to improve motor timing ability, by means of less timing asynchrony and with associated changes in timing variability, in both golf- and soccer-players. Additionally, significant improvements in golf shot and soccer cross-pass performance, by means of significant increase in outcome accuracy combined with a decrease in outcome variability was found. From the kinematic investigation in Study II, results indicate that improved motor timing, as an effect of SMT, lead to a more coordinated and dynamic swing performance, and with decreased variability in the temporal structure of the swing motion. Finally, it was found that SMT induces changes in the activity of the action observation network (AON), underpinning action observation and action prediction, by means of decreased activation within bilateral cerebellum, fusiform gyrus and superior temporal gyrus. These findings hint at a more efficient pattern of neural recruitment during action observation, after SMT. Conclusion In summary, this thesis provides evidence that four weeks of SMT improved the participant’s motor timing and synchronization abilities, and showed influence on both behavioral and neurophysiological motor programs and skill performance in golf and soccer players. Thus, by improved outcome accuracy and decreased variability, affecting the coordinated movement pattern and organisation, as well as affecting the associated underlying brain activation.

L’avancée de l’âge entraîne une diminution du contrôle moteur ainsi que l’apparition de troubles de la marche et de l'équilibre. Ces difficultés affectent la capacité des personnes âgées à accomplir les activités de la vie quotidienne et à maintenir leur indépendance (Salthouse, 2000 ; Seidler et al., 2010). Dans le cadre des théories de la simulation, de nombreuses études ont révélé des similitudes, tant au niveau comportemental que neuronal, entre exécution et simulation motrice (Decety & Jeannerod, 1995 ; Grezes & Decety, 2001). Selon Jeannerod (2001), ce processus cognitif permet de simuler mentalement une action, tandis qu’un mécanisme d’inhibition est mis en place pour contrôler toute exécution motrice externe (Bonnet et al., 1997 ; Jeannerod, 1994). Il est toutefois difficile de caractériser ce processus et d’ainsi révéler les troubles de simulation. Par ailleurs, peu d’études se sont intéressées à stimuler le processus de simulation motrice, notamment par l’utilisation de stimuli odorants. En effet, il a été rapporté que les odeurs avaient de nombreux effets sur la cognition (Millot et al., 2002), les émotions (Matsunaga et al., 2012), mais également l’exécution motrice (Castiello et al., 2006). Ce travail de thèse vise à évaluer l’effet de l’environnement odorant sur la simulation motrice lors de tâches d’observation et d’imagerie d’actions motrices chez des participants jeunes et âgés sains. Dans une première partie, nous avons révélé la simulation motrice à l’aide d’une cellule de force, lors de l’observation d’actions. Une amplitude plus importante des variations de la force de préhension a été observée lors du visionnage de scènes vidéo d’actions chez des sujets jeunes (étude 1), reflet de la mise en place du processus de simulation motrice. Ces résultats ont été retrouvés lors de la présentation de photos représentant des activités de faible (marche) ou forte (course) intensité (étude 2). Dans une deuxième partie, nous nous sommes intéressés à l’effet des odeurs sur le processus de simulation motrice, la cognition et les émotions. En effet, les odeurs sont fortement liées à la mémoire, qu’elle soit émotionnelle (souvenirs) ou sémantique (catégorisation d’une odeur). Placés dans un environnement odorant, les participants ressentaient une sensation de bien-être lorsque les odeurs rappelaient des souvenirs autobiographiques (étude 3). En nous basant sur le modèle d’Act-in (Versace et al.,2014), sentir une odeur entrainerait une réactivation des traces en mémoire et permettrait de se représenter les caractéristiques perceptuelles d’un objet. Ainsi, sentir une orange (gros fruit) ou une fraise (petit fruit) impliquerait une simulation et une exécution motrice différente en fonction de leurs caractéristiques propres. Nous avons ainsi évalué l’influence des odeurs de fraise et d’orange sur la simulation d’actions impliquant la manipulation de fruits (Etude 4). Il était observé un relâchement de la contraction musculaire lorsqu’une odeur de fraise était présentée. L’odeur d’orange entrainait en revanche une plus importante contraction musculaire, et cela même si les participants devaient s’imaginer manipuler une fraise. Ces études ouvrent la question de la représentation perceptuelle évoquée par l’odeur et pouvant influencer la simulation et donc l’exécution. Utiliser des odeurs pourrait, dès lors, être utile lors la prise en soin des personnes ayant des troubles de la motricité en augmentant la sensation de bien-être ressenti et en stimulant le processus de simulation motrice par l’évocation des caractéristiques de perception par l’odeur. Un ensemble de perspectives de recherches et d’applications cliniques s’ouvrent au regard de ces résultats, et seront discutées dans cette thèse. / With advanced age, a decline in fine motor control, gait and balance is observed. These difficulties affect the elderly’s ability to perform daily activities and maintain their independence (Salthouse, 2000; Seidler et al., 2010). In the context of simulation theories, numerous studies revealed similarities between motor execution and simulation, both at a behavioral and a neural level, in neuronal behavioral behavior (Decety and Jeannerod 1995, Grezes and Decety 2001). According to Jeannerod (2001), this cognitive process permits to simulate an action, while a mechanism of inhibition operates to control any external motor execution (Bonnet et al., 1997, Jeannerod, 1994). However, it is difficult to characterize this process and thus reveal the simulation disorders. In addition, few studies were interesting in the stimulation of the motor simulation process, especially by using odorant stimuli. Indeed, odors can have effects on cognition (Millot et al., 2002), emotions (Matsunaga et al., 2012), and motor execution (Castiello et al., 2006). This thesis aims to evaluate the effect of the odorant environment on motor simulation during action observation and motor imagery task in healthy young and elderly participants. In the first part, we revealed the motor simulation by using a grip-force sensor during action observation and motor imagery tasks. A higher amplitude of the grip force variations was observed in young participants when they were watching video scenes of actions (study 1), reflecting the involving of motor simulation process. These results were also found when pictures depicting either a low (walk) or high (race) intensity of force were presented to young participants (study 2). In the same way, these variations were observed in elderly participants when they were watching video of reach-to-grasp actions (study 3). In the second part, we were interested in the effect of odors on the motor simulation process, cognition and emotions. Indeed, odors are strongly related to memory, either in an emotional (memories) or in a semantic (categorization of an odor) way. Placed in an odorant environment, participants felt more positive affects when the odors recalling autobiographical memories were diffused (Study 4). Based on the Act-in model (Versace et al., 2014), perceiving an odor would lead to a reactivation of memory traces implying the perceptual characteristics of this odor. Thus, smelling an orange (large fruit) or a strawberry (small fruit) would lead to a different motor simulation and execution according to their own characteristics. We thus evaluated the influence of strawberry and orange odors on the simulation of reaching-grasping actions involving fruit handling (Study 4). A size-congruence effect was found when a strawberry odor was diffused, as revealed with the muscular release observed. On the other hand, the orange odor led to a more important muscular contraction, especially when the participants had to imagine handle a strawberry. These studies open the question of the perceptual representation evoked by the odors that can influence the simulation process and thus the execution. Using odors could be relevant in clinical settings for people who are suffering from motor disorders by improving the well-being feeling and also stimulate the motor simulation process by evoking perceptual characteristics with the odors. A set of research perspectives and clinical applications will be opened considering these results and will be discussed in this thesis.

Il a été suggéré que la similarité physique entre un observateur et une action observée facilite la perception et la compréhension d’action. Par exemple, l’observation d’un acteur exécutant des gestes de la main ayant une signification culturelle est associée à une augmentation de l’excitabilité corticospinale lorsque les deux individus sont de la même ethnicité (Molnar-Szakacs et al., 2007). La perception tactile serait également facilitée lorsqu’un individu regarde un modèle de sa propre race être touché (Serino et al., 2009), tandis que des études en imagerie cérébrale fonctionnelle suggèrent la présence d’activations plus importantes dans le cortex cingulaire lorsqu’un sujet observe une personne de son propre groupe racial ressentir de la douleur (Xu et al., 2009). Certaines études ont lié ces résultats à un mécanisme de résonance motrice, possiblement associé au système des neurones miroirs (SNM), suggérant que la représentation de l’action dans les aires motrices est facilitée par la similarité physique. Toutefois, la grande majorité des stimuli utilisés dans ces études comportent une composante émotionnelle ou culturelle pouvant masquer les effets purement moteurs liant la similarité physique à un mécanisme de résonance motrice. De plus, la sélectivité de l’activation du SNM face à des stimuli biologiques a récemment été remise en question en raison de biais méthodologiques. La présente thèse présente trois études visant à évaluer l’effet de la similarité physique et des caractéristiques biologiques d’un mouvement sur la résonance motrice à l’aide de mesures comportementales et neurophysiologiques. À cet effet, l’imitation automatique de mouvements de la main, l’excitabilité corticospinale et la désynchronisation du rythme électroencéphalographique mu ont servi de marqueurs de l’activité du SNM. Dans les trois études présentées, la couleur de la peau et l’aspect biologique du stimulus observé ou imité ont été systématiquement manipulés. Nos données confirment la sélectivité du SNM pour le mouvement biologique en démontrant une réponse imitative plus rapide et une désynchronisation du rythme mu plus prononcée lors de la présentation de stimuli biologiques comparativement à des stimuli non-biologiques répliquant les aspects physiques du mouvement humain. Les deux mêmes mesures montrent une réponse neurophysiologique et comportementale équivalente lorsque l’action est exécutée par un agent de couleur similaire ou dissimilaire au participant. Nous rapportons aussi un effet surprenant de la similarité physique sur l’excitabilité corticospinale, où l’observation d’une action exécutée par un agent de couleur différente est associée à une activation plus grande du cortex moteur primaire droit de participants de sexe féminin. Prises dans leur ensemble, ces données suggèrent que la similarité physique avec une action observée ne module généralement pas l’activité du SNM au niveau des aires sensorimotrices en l’absence de composantes culturelles et émotionnelles. De plus, les résultats présentés suggèrent que le SNM est sélectif au mouvement biologique plutôt qu’à l’aspect kinématique du mouvement. / It has been suggested that physical similarity with an observed model facilitates action perception and understanding. For example, increased corticospinal excitability is found in participants observing actors of their own ethnicity performing culture-specific hand movements (Molnar-Szakacs et al., 2007). Tactile perception is also said to be increased when individuals watch a model of the same race being touched (Serino et al., 2009). Moreover, imaging data suggest that stronger activations are observed in the cingulate cortex when a subject observes a person of their own race feeling pain (Xu et al., 2009). Some studies have linked these findings with a motor resonance mechanism, possibly associated with the mirror neuron system (MNS), suggesting that action representation in motor areas is facilitated by physical similarity. However, most of the observed stimuli in those studies include emotional or cultural components, which may blur the link between physical similarity and motor resonance per se. The present thesis is comprised of three studies that aimed at evaluating the effect of physical similarity on motor resonance using stimuli that are purely motor in nature. The effect of physical similarity on motor responses during action observation was assessed with behavioral and electrophysiological measures. To this end, imitation of simple finger movements, as well as corticospinal excitability and mu rhythm desynchronization during passive observation of simple finger movements was evaluated, using stimuli that were similar or dissimilar to the participant in terms of skin color. In line with previous results, observation of biological movement resulted in faster reaction times and greater mu desynchronization compared to non-biological movement. Physical similarity with the imitated or observed hand did not affect imitation speed or mu desynchronization. It did, however, have a surprising effect on corticospinal excitability, where the amplitude of transcranial magnetic stimulation-induced motor evoked potentials was greater in the right hemisphere of female participants observing hand movement executed by hands of a different color. These data suggest that physical similarity with an observed action in terms of skin color does not modulate MNS activity in sensorimotor cortex when cultural and emotional components are absent. The present results also strengthen the notion that the motor cortex node of the MNS is tuned to the biological nature of an observed action.

Il a été suggéré que la similarité physique entre un observateur et une action observée facilite la perception et la compréhension d’action. Par exemple, l’observation d’un acteur exécutant des gestes de la main ayant une signification culturelle est associée à une augmentation de l’excitabilité corticospinale lorsque les deux individus sont de la même ethnicité (Molnar-Szakacs et al., 2007). La perception tactile serait également facilitée lorsqu’un individu regarde un modèle de sa propre race être touché (Serino et al., 2009), tandis que des études en imagerie cérébrale fonctionnelle suggèrent la présence d’activations plus importantes dans le cortex cingulaire lorsqu’un sujet observe une personne de son propre groupe racial ressentir de la douleur (Xu et al., 2009). Certaines études ont lié ces résultats à un mécanisme de résonance motrice, possiblement associé au système des neurones miroirs (SNM), suggérant que la représentation de l’action dans les aires motrices est facilitée par la similarité physique. Toutefois, la grande majorité des stimuli utilisés dans ces études comportent une composante émotionnelle ou culturelle pouvant masquer les effets purement moteurs liant la similarité physique à un mécanisme de résonance motrice. De plus, la sélectivité de l’activation du SNM face à des stimuli biologiques a récemment été remise en question en raison de biais méthodologiques. La présente thèse présente trois études visant à évaluer l’effet de la similarité physique et des caractéristiques biologiques d’un mouvement sur la résonance motrice à l’aide de mesures comportementales et neurophysiologiques. À cet effet, l’imitation automatique de mouvements de la main, l’excitabilité corticospinale et la désynchronisation du rythme électroencéphalographique mu ont servi de marqueurs de l’activité du SNM. Dans les trois études présentées, la couleur de la peau et l’aspect biologique du stimulus observé ou imité ont été systématiquement manipulés. Nos données confirment la sélectivité du SNM pour le mouvement biologique en démontrant une réponse imitative plus rapide et une désynchronisation du rythme mu plus prononcée lors de la présentation de stimuli biologiques comparativement à des stimuli non-biologiques répliquant les aspects physiques du mouvement humain. Les deux mêmes mesures montrent une réponse neurophysiologique et comportementale équivalente lorsque l’action est exécutée par un agent de couleur similaire ou dissimilaire au participant. Nous rapportons aussi un effet surprenant de la similarité physique sur l’excitabilité corticospinale, où l’observation d’une action exécutée par un agent de couleur différente est associée à une activation plus grande du cortex moteur primaire droit de participants de sexe féminin. Prises dans leur ensemble, ces données suggèrent que la similarité physique avec une action observée ne module généralement pas l’activité du SNM au niveau des aires sensorimotrices en l’absence de composantes culturelles et émotionnelles. De plus, les résultats présentés suggèrent que le SNM est sélectif au mouvement biologique plutôt qu’à l’aspect kinématique du mouvement. / It has been suggested that physical similarity with an observed model facilitates action perception and understanding. For example, increased corticospinal excitability is found in participants observing actors of their own ethnicity performing culture-specific hand movements (Molnar-Szakacs et al., 2007). Tactile perception is also said to be increased when individuals watch a model of the same race being touched (Serino et al., 2009). Moreover, imaging data suggest that stronger activations are observed in the cingulate cortex when a subject observes a person of their own race feeling pain (Xu et al., 2009). Some studies have linked these findings with a motor resonance mechanism, possibly associated with the mirror neuron system (MNS), suggesting that action representation in motor areas is facilitated by physical similarity. However, most of the observed stimuli in those studies include emotional or cultural components, which may blur the link between physical similarity and motor resonance per se. The present thesis is comprised of three studies that aimed at evaluating the effect of physical similarity on motor resonance using stimuli that are purely motor in nature. The effect of physical similarity on motor responses during action observation was assessed with behavioral and electrophysiological measures. To this end, imitation of simple finger movements, as well as corticospinal excitability and mu rhythm desynchronization during passive observation of simple finger movements was evaluated, using stimuli that were similar or dissimilar to the participant in terms of skin color. In line with previous results, observation of biological movement resulted in faster reaction times and greater mu desynchronization compared to non-biological movement. Physical similarity with the imitated or observed hand did not affect imitation speed or mu desynchronization. It did, however, have a surprising effect on corticospinal excitability, where the amplitude of transcranial magnetic stimulation-induced motor evoked potentials was greater in the right hemisphere of female participants observing hand movement executed by hands of a different color. These data suggest that physical similarity with an observed action in terms of skin color does not modulate MNS activity in sensorimotor cortex when cultural and emotional components are absent. The present results also strengthen the notion that the motor cortex node of the MNS is tuned to the biological nature of an observed action.