Active transportation (AT) is a form of physical activity involving human-powered transportation (e.g., walking) and is associated with health benefits. However, the majority of Canadians do not use AT. Although environmental factors, such as proximity, are correlated with AT, interventions to change such factors have been ineffective. According to social cognitive theory, both environmental and personal factors (i.e., social and spatial cognitions) may influence motivated behaviour. The social cognitions of interest in the present study included self-regulatory efficacy to schedule (i.e., confidence to regularly schedule walking for AT), and to overcome barriers (i.e., confidence to cope with barriers to walking for AT). Spatial cognitions included distance and travel time cognitions. The purpose of the study was to examine whether social cognitive personal factors (i.e., scheduling self-efficacy, barriers self-efficacy), spatial cognitive personal factors (i.e., distance and travel time cognitions), and an environmental factor (i.e., proximity) were associated with walking for AT to/from a university campus over a two-week period in a convenience sample of adults. Participants in this prospective observational study were a convenience sample of 105 students, faculty, and staff at a western Canadian university, who ranged in age from 17 to 55 years (M = 24.62 years, SD = 8.15). Participants completed three online surveys over a two-week period. Social cognitions for the following two-week period and spatial cognitions were assessed at Time 1. Recall of walking for AT to/from a university campus in the previous week was assessed at Time 2 and Time 3. Total walking for AT to/from campus over the two-week period was the outcome variable. The overall hierarchical multiple regression model predicting AT from the social and spatial cognitions and proximity was significant (R2adjusted = .53; p < .01). As hypothesized, scheduling (ßstd = .44, p < .01) and barriers (ßstd = .23, p < .05) self-efficacy were associated with AT. Scheduling self-efficacy was the strongest predictor. Contrary to hypotheses, distance and travel time cognitions and proximity were not significant (ps > .05). Social cognitions, particularly self-regulatory efficacy to schedule, and efficacy to overcome barriers, may play an important role in individuals use of walking for AT to/from a university campus. Future research should continue to examine social cognitive-theory based personal and environmental predictors of AT, such as self-regulatory efficacy to goal set, outcome expectations, the weather and residential density, to better understand potential determinants of this health-promoting type of physical activity.

Active transportation (AT) is a form of physical activity involving human-powered transportation (e.g., walking) and is associated with health benefits. However, the majority of Canadians do not use AT. Although environmental factors, such as proximity, are correlated with AT, interventions to change such factors have been ineffective. According to social cognitive theory, both environmental and personal factors (i.e., social and spatial cognitions) may influence motivated behaviour. The social cognitions of interest in the present study included self-regulatory efficacy to schedule (i.e., confidence to regularly schedule walking for AT), and to overcome barriers (i.e., confidence to cope with barriers to walking for AT). Spatial cognitions included distance and travel time cognitions. The purpose of the study was to examine whether social cognitive personal factors (i.e., scheduling self-efficacy, barriers self-efficacy), spatial cognitive personal factors (i.e., distance and travel time cognitions), and an environmental factor (i.e., proximity) were associated with walking for AT to/from a university campus over a two-week period in a convenience sample of adults. Participants in this prospective observational study were a convenience sample of 105 students, faculty, and staff at a western Canadian university, who ranged in age from 17 to 55 years (M = 24.62 years, SD = 8.15). Participants completed three online surveys over a two-week period. Social cognitions for the following two-week period and spatial cognitions were assessed at Time 1. Recall of walking for AT to/from a university campus in the previous week was assessed at Time 2 and Time 3. Total walking for AT to/from campus over the two-week period was the outcome variable. The overall hierarchical multiple regression model predicting AT from the social and spatial cognitions and proximity was significant (R2adjusted = .53; p < .01). As hypothesized, scheduling (ßstd = .44, p < .01) and barriers (ßstd = .23, p < .05) self-efficacy were associated with AT. Scheduling self-efficacy was the strongest predictor. Contrary to hypotheses, distance and travel time cognitions and proximity were not significant (ps > .05). Social cognitions, particularly self-regulatory efficacy to schedule, and efficacy to overcome barriers, may play an important role in individuals use of walking for AT to/from a university campus. Future research should continue to examine social cognitive-theory based personal and environmental predictors of AT, such as self-regulatory efficacy to goal set, outcome expectations, the weather and residential density, to better understand potential determinants of this health-promoting type of physical activity.

This thesis intends to demonstrate how capital infrastructure investments can be targeted objectively, using the "Safe Routes to School" (SRTS) program for context. SRTS impacts physical activity, a determinant of childhood obesity by encouraging children’s regular active transportation use. This thesis supports the widespread implementation of SRTS and has developed the "Shelling Model" to objectively identify schools for programming. Accordingly, the "Shelling Model" aims to objectively identify physical and socio-economic environment variables impacting HISD-E middle school neighborhoods’ walkability. The "Shelling Model" is a first step in creating a walkability index for which pedestrian orientation levels can be identified and schools targeted. This model facilitates the identification of variables, providing insight into neighborhood walkability levels. Revealed by statistically significant variables, in combination with Walkscore and Catchment regression models’ respective 45.5 and 13.6 Adjusted R-Square values, the "Shelling" archetype proves a useful tool for investigating the walkability of HISD-E middle school neighborhoods.

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Summary Aim The study examines a theoretical model developed to capture cyclist´s perceptions of the route environment. The survey focuses on if level two and three in the theoretical model captures what it´s intended to do. More specific we ask ourselves how the three appraisals (unsafe/safe by traffic reasons, stimulating/inhibiting route environment, unsafe/safe by other reasons) in the model´s second level relates among themselves and if these three appraisals can capture the degree of environmental well-being/unwell-being in the model´s third level. The questions were: Do the three appraisals differ among themselves? What is the difference/-s in such cases? And, is there a correlation between any of the three appraisals and environmental unwell-being/well-being? What is the correlation in such case?   Method The gathering of data was done through questionnaires. The participants got to assess their perceptions of four photographs on route environments. The assessment was done by four questions too each photograph. The four appraisals in the theoretical model about the route environment, which the study is based on, have formed the basis for respectively question. The four questions read: “How unsafe/safe by traffic reasons would you feel in this route environment?” ([1] unsafe/safe by traffic reasons). “To what extent do you assess that this route environment would stimulate/inhibit your cycling?” ([2] stimulating/inhibiting route environment). “How unsafe/safe by other reasons than traffic would you feel in this route environment?” ([3] unsafe/safe by other reasons) and “How would you assess your environmental well-being/unwell-being in this route environment?” ([4] environmental well-being/unwell-being). To rate the photographs The ACRES (Active Commuting Route Environment Scale) 15-degree point scale has been used. 157 students from The Swedish School of Sport and Health Sciences, aged from 19 to 43 years, were included in the study, of which 62 students were males (mean age: 24,3 years) and 95 students were females (mean age: 23,4 years). The data was analyzed with Pearsons correlation analysis, dependent t-test and multiple regression.   Results The dependent t-test analysis showed that there was a significant difference in assessments between all of the appraisals for photography 1, 2, and 3. Photograph 4 showed a significant difference in assessments between the appraisals [1] unsafe/safe by traffic reasons and [2] stimulating/inhibiting route environment and between [1] unsafe/safe by traffic reasons and [3] unsafe/safe by other reasons. However, no significant difference was shown between [2] stimulating/inhibiting route environment and [3] unsafe/safe by other reasons. The correlation matrices for each photograph showed a significant correlation between [4] environmental well-being/unwell-being and the three appraisals. However, the multiple regression analysis showed no significant correlation between the appraisals [1] unsafe/safe by traffic reasons and [4] environmental well-being/unwell-being. This applies for all four photographs.   Conclusion Appraisal [1] unsafe/safe by traffic reasons seems to be distinguished from the other two appraisals. Appraisal [3] unsafe/safe by other reasons and appraisal [2] stimulating/inhibiting route environment may possibly be distinguished from each other. The appraisals [2] stimulating/inhibiting route environment and [3] unsafe/safe by other reasons may have an effect on [4] environmental well-being/unwell-being during cycling. Appraisal [2] and [3] can to 30-57% explain the changes of [4] environmental well-being/unwell-being during cycling of the four route environments that were assessed in this study. Appraisal [1] Unsafe/safe by traffic reasons does not seem to have an effect on the degree of [4] environmental well-being/unwell-being during cycling. With that being said level 2 and 3 of the theoretical model about the route environment do partially work. This study was an attempt, through photographs, examine a theoretical model about the route environment but more studies are needed to explore uncertainties of this model. / Sammanfattning Syfte och frågeställningar Studien granskar en teoretisk modell framtagen för att fånga cyklisters uppfattningar av färdvägsmiljön. Undersökningen fokuserar på om nivå två och tre i den teoretiska modellen fångar vad de är ämnade att göra. Mer specifikt frågar vi oss hur de tre utsagorna (otrygg/trygg av trafikmässiga skäl, otrygg/trygg av andra orsaker och stimulerande/motverkande färdvägsmiljö) i modellens andra nivå förhåller sig sinsemellan samt om dessa tre utsagor kan fånga graden av miljömässigt välbefinnande/ovälbefinnande i modellens tredje nivå. Frågeställningarna var: Skiljer sig de tre utsagorna åt sinsemellan? Hur ter sig skillnaden/-erna i sådana fall? Och finns det ett samband mellan någon/några av de tre utsagorna och miljömässigt välbefinnande/ovälbefinnande? Hur ser sambanden i sådana fall ut?   Metod Datainsamlingen skedde genom enkäter. Respondenterna fick bedöma sina upplevelser av fyra fotografier på färdvägsmiljöer. Bedömningarna skedde genom fyra frågor till varje fotografi. De fyra utsagorna i den teoretiska modellen om färdvägsmiljön som studien bygger på har legat till grund för utformningen av respektive bedömningsfråga. De fyra frågorna lyder: ”Hur otrygg/trygg av trafikmässiga skäl skulle du känna dig i denna färdvägsmiljö?” ([1] otrygg/trygg av trafikmässiga skäl). ”I vilken grad uppfattar du att denna färdvägsmiljö skulle stimulera/motverka din cykling?” [2] stimulerande/motverkande färdvägsmiljö). ”Hur otrygg/trygg av andra orsaker än trafiken skulle du känna dig i denna färdvägsmiljö?” ([3] otrygg/trygg av andra orsaker) samt ”Hur skulle du uppfatta ditt miljömässiga välbefinnande/ovälbefinnande i denna färdvägsmiljö?” ([4] miljömässigt välbefinnande/ovälbefinnande). För skattning av fotografierna har ACRES (Active Commuting Route Environment Scale) 15-gradiga skala använts. 157 studenter från Gymnastik-och idrottshögskolan i åldrarna 19-43 år inkluderades i studien, varav 62 studenter var män (medelålder 24,3 år) och 95 studenter var kvinnor (medelålder 23,4 år). Dataanalyserna gjordes genom Pearsons korrelationsanalys, beroende t-test och multipel regression.   Resultat Analysen med beroende t-test visade att det fanns statistiskt signifikanta skillnader i skattningarna mellan samtliga utsagor för fotografi 1, 2 och 3. För fotografi 4 kan man se att det fanns en signifikant skillnad i skattningar mellan utsagorna [1] otrygg/trygg av trafikmässiga skäl och [2] stimulerande/motverkande färdvägsmiljö samt mellan [1] otrygg/trygg av trafikmässiga skäl och [3] otrygg/trygg av andra orsaker. Dock fanns det ingen signifikant skillnad mellan [2] stimulerande/motverkande färdvägsmiljö och [3] otrygg/trygg av andra orsaker. Korrelationsmatrisen för varje fotografi visade att det fanns ett statistiskt signifikant samband mellan [4] miljömässigt välbefinnande/ovälbefinnande och de tre utsagorna. Dock visade den multipla regressionsanalysen inget signifikant samband mellan utsaga [1] otrygg/trygg av trafikmässiga skäl och [4] miljömässigt välbefinnande/ovälbefinnande. Detta gäller för samtliga fyra fotografier.   Slutsats Utsaga [1] otrygg/trygg av trafikmässiga skäl verkar kunna särskiljas från de två övriga utsagorna. Utsaga [3] otrygg/trygg av andra orsaker och utsaga [2] stimulerande/motverkande färdvägsmiljö kan möjligtvis särskiljas från varandra. Utsagorna [2] stimulerande/motverkande färdvägsmiljö och [3] otrygg/trygg av andra orsaker verkar kunna påverka graden av [4] miljömässigt välbefinnande/ovälbefinnande under cykling. Utsaga [2] och [3] kan till 30-57% förklara förändringen av [4] miljömässigt välbefinnande/ovälbefinnande under cykling för de fyra färdvägsmiljöer som bedömdes i den här studien. Utsaga [1] otrygg/trygg av trafikmässiga skäl verkar inte kunna påverka graden av [4] miljömässigt välbefinnande/ovälbefinnande under cykling. Med detta sagt fungerar nivå 2 och 3 i den teoretiska modellen om färdvägsmiljön delvis. Denna studie var ett försök att med hjälp av fotografier granska en teoretisk modell om färdvägsmiljön men fler studier behövs för att utforska oklarheter i denna modell.

Background: Commuting to work is a part of daily life for many and using active commuting can be beneficial for health by increasing physical activity. Even small amounts of physical activity are better than none. One method of achieving physical activity during daily life is through active commuting, such as cycling or walking to work. Active commuters have lower risk of cardiovascular disease compared to passive commuters. Cycling to work can improve cardiorespiratory fitness, lower blood pressure, and reduce body mass index (BMI). Aim: This study investigated the differences between active and passive commuters in terms of cardiorespiratory fitness, blood pressure, body mass index (BMI), and self-reported physical activity levels.  Methods: Approximately 20 businesses were contacted. Cardiorespiratory fitness was estimated using the submaximal Ekblom-Bak cycle ergometer test, and results were presented in absolute (L·min−1) and relative (ml·min−1·kg−1) values. Blood pressure was obtained from automatic blood pressure monitor and dichotomised as normal blood pressure or raised. BMI (kg·m−2) was calculated from weight and height measurements. Participants reported their commuting methods in a questionnaire. Active commuters were defined as traveling at least 1000 meters by cycling or walking to work once per week. Physical activity was assessed with the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) and was reported in Metabolic Equivalent of Task (MET) minutes per week and categorical score of low, middle, or high levels of physical activity. Differences between groups were analysed with Chi-square test and Mann-Whitney U test. Results: A total of 13 participants were recruited for the study and had a median age of 40 years, a BMI of 24.0 kg·m−2, and a cardiorespiratory fitness of 48.8 ml·min−1·kg−1. Active (n = 7) and passive (n = 6) commuters did not differ significantly when looking at blood pressure or BMI. There was no statistical difference in cardiorespiratory fitness. Passive and active commuters demonstrated average to high levels of cardiorespiratory fitness, (51.4 ml·min−1·kg−1 and 42.7 ml·min−1·kg−1 respectively). Majority of the participants in both groups had moderate to high levels of physical activity in their daily life. Conclusion: This study showed no significant differences between active and passive commuters regarding cardiorespiratory fitness, blood pressure, body mass index, or physical activity levels. Future studies with larger cohorts may further explore active commuting and various health parameters, providing more conclusive evidence. / Bakgrund: Att ta sig till arbetet är en del av vardagen för många och att använda aktiva transportsätt kan vara fördelaktigt för hälsan genom att öka fysisk aktivitet. Även små mängder fysisk aktivitet är bättre än ingen alls. Ett sätt att uppnå fysisk aktivitet under vardagen är genom aktiv transport, såsom att cykla eller gå till arbetet. Aktiv transport bidrar med lägre risk för hjärt-kärlsjukdom jämfört med passiv. Att cykla till jobbet kan förbättra konditionen, sänka blodtrycket och minska kroppsmassindex (BMI). Syfte: Denna studie undersökte skillnaderna mellan aktiva och passiva pendlare avseende konditionsnivå, blodtryck, BMI och självrapporterade fysiska aktivitetsnivåer. Metod: Ett 20-tal företag kontaktades. Konditionsnivå uppskattades med hjälp av Ekblom-Bak cykelergometertest, och resultat presenterades i absoluta (L·min−1) och relativa (ml·min−1·kg−1) värden. Blodtryck (mmHg) mättes med automatisk blodtrycksmätare och dikotomiserades som normalt eller förhöjt blodtryck. BMI (kg·m−2) beräknades utifrån vikt- och längd. Deltagarna rapporterade sina transportmetoder i en enkät. Aktiva pendlare definierades som de som cyklade eller promenerade minst 1000 meter till jobbet minst en gång i veckan. Nivån av fysisk aktivitet bedömdes med International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) och rapporterades i Metaboliska ekvivalenter (MET) minuter per vecka samt som antingen låg, medel, eller hög nivå av fysisk aktivitet. Skillnader mellan grupperna analyserades med hjälp av Chi-tvåtest och Mann-Whitney U test. Resultat: Totalt 13 deltagare rekryterades till studien och hade en medianålder på 40 år, ett BMI på 24,0 kg·m−2 och en konditionsnivå på 48,8 ml·min−1·kg−1. Aktiva (n = 7) och passiva (n = 6) skiljde sig inte signifikant när det gällde blodtryck eller BMI. Det fanns ingen statistisk skillnad i konditionsnivå. Passiva och aktiva pendlare visade medel till höga nivåer av konditionsnivå (51,4 ml·min−1·kg−1 respektive 42,5 ml·min−1·kg−1). Majoriteten av deltagarna i båda grupperna hade måttliga till höga nivåer av fysisk aktivitet i sin vardag. Konklusion: Denna studie visade inga signifikanta skillnader mellan aktiva och passiva pendlare avseende konditionsnivå, blodtryck, BMI eller fysisk aktivitetsnivå. Framtida studier med större kohorter kan ytterligare utforska aktiv pendling och olika hälsoaspekter.

Contribution d'organismes subventionnaires: Le Conseil de recherche en sciences humaines du Canada (CRSH), Sport Canada et l’Initiative de recherche sur la participation au sport, l’Institut de recherche en santé publique (IRSPUM)

The Umnini Tribal Authority is a poor, semi-rural area in KwaZulu-Natal, governed by a local chief. This study set out to determine school commuting patterns in relation to school choice and socio-economic status (SES) in the area. Mixed methods were used, involving a parental questionnaire survey, interviews, focus groups and a field audit with photographs. Overall, almost all learners enrolled in the seven 'no-fee' state primary (four) and high schools (three) under study were found to be Black African, IsiZulu speakers, and generally ‘extremely poor’ to ‘very poor’. Most households are headed by single mothers who have completed high school but are unemployed. Most households rely on government social grants to some extent. Most fathers were either absent, poorly educated to uneducated, and far less likely to be employed than the mothers. Children living with both parents, especially where the father was tertiary educated, and the mother employed, fell into the ‘less poor’ and ‘better off than most’ categories. In terms of school choice affordability, good teachers, good school management and proximity to home were the main drivers of enrolment. SES seems to have an impact on the amount of money spent on school lunches and school expenses, although there were some concerning exceptions. Primary school learners walked to school, but many parents pay for monthly transport. Some use the government-subsidised bus. High school learners tended to have longer and less safe journeys to school and back than primary school learners. This is especially true for boy learners, who are targets for criminals, drug addicts and, even worse, school bus drivers. Several challenges face all these learners en route to school every day: crime, unsafe and poor road conditions, roadworthy vehicles, long journeys and rough terrain. Primary school learners often get lost or left behind by their transport drivers. Fortunately, their teachers are actively involved in ensuring their safety and well-being – far more so than their parents, who seldom even know the name of the transport driver, let alone whether the vehicle is appropriate, roadworthy or licenced. High school learners were more likely to live in ‘extremely poor’ to ‘very poor’ households, a possible indicator that financially better-off parents are sending their high school children to schools outside of the area. It is recommended that the local tribal authority, the provincial government, the schools, parents and drivers need to work in unison to make the school commute simpler and safer. / Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Environmental Management)