Dans cette étude, nous analysons des combinaisons formées d’un verbe à droite duquel se trouve un adjectif invarié (du type manger + bio, acheter français). Dans cette position, il est incident au verbe d’un point de vue syntaxique. Cependant, en tant qu’élément caractérisant, il requiert sémantiquement des éléments supports, mais ceux-ci sont systématiquement absents de l’énoncé. L’absence de ces supports sémantiques entraîne son invariabilité, et c’est la raison pour laquelle on propose de parler d’adjectif « invarié ». On peut par ailleurs constater que l’adjectif, dans cet environnement syntaxique, fonctionne comme un adverbe, unité de langue avec lequel il partage cette position prototypique à droite du verbe. Il apparaît que dans ce contexte syntaxique, l’adjectif invarié peut porter sur plusieurs éléments. Dans certains cas, il peut s’agir d’éléments appartenant à la structure argumentale du verbe, tels que l’objet non exprimé ; dans d’autres cas, il peut porter sur des éléments qui n’appartiennent pas forcément à la structure argumentale (dans une combinaison du type pédaler + utile). Dans cette étude, nous postulons qu’il peut alors être complément de manière. / In this study, we analyze verb combinations formed by placing an adjective to the right of a verb (such as "to eat organic" or "to buy French"). Placed in this position, the adjective is incidental to the verb from a syntactical point of view. However, as a defining element, it requires supporting elements, which are systematically absent from the statement. The absence of these semantical supports causes the adjective to be grammatically invariable, and for that reason, we speak of "invariable" adjectives. It can be maintained that, in this syntactical environment, an adjective finds itself in the place of another linguistic structure of which it is the prototypical function and with which it appears to be in competition: the adverb.It appears that, in this syntactical contest, an invariable adjective bears upon several elements. In certain cases, it can be a matter of elements belonging to the argumental structure of the verb, such as the unexpressed object. In other cases, it can involve elements that do not necessarily belong to the argumental structure (as in the combination "to bike + useful"). In this study, we postulate that it can thus be a complement describing the manner.

Adverb positioning is guided by syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic considerations and is subject to cross-linguistic as well as language-specific variation. The goal of the thesis is to identify the factors that determine adverb placement in general (Part I) as well as in constructions in which the adverb's sister constituent is deprived of its phonetic material by movement or ellipsis (gap constructions, Part II) and to provide an Optimality Theoretic approach to the contrasts in the effects of these factors on the distribution of adverbs in English, French, and German. <br><br> In Optimality Theory (Prince & Smolensky 1993), grammaticality is defined as optimal satisfaction of a hierarchy of violable constraints: for a given input, a set of output candidates are produced out of which that candidate is selected as grammatical output which optimally satisfies the constraint hierarchy. Since grammaticality crucially relies on the hierarchic relations of the constraints, cross-linguistic variation can be traced back to differences in the language-specific constraint rankings. Part I shows how diverse phenomena of adverb placement can be captured by corresponding constraints and their relative rankings: <br><br> - contrasts in the linearization of adverbs and verbs/auxiliaries in English and French<br> - verb placement in German and the filling of the prefield position<br> - placement of focus-sensitive adverbs<br> - fronting of topical arguments and adverbs<br><br> Part II extends the analysis to a particular phenomenon of adverb positioning: the avoidance of adverb attachment to a phonetically empty constituent (gap). English and French are similar in that the acceptability of pre-gap adverb placement depends on the type of adverb, its scope, and the syntactic construction (English: wh-movement vs. topicalization / VP Fronting / VP Ellipsis, inverted vs. non-inverted clauses; French: CLLD vs. Cleft, simple vs. periphrastic tense). Yet, the two languages differ in which strategies a specific type of adverb may pursue to escape placement in front of a certain type of gap. In contrast to English and French, placement of an adverb in front of a gap never gives rise to ungrammaticality in German. Rather, word ordering has to obey the syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic principles discussed in Part I; whether or not it results in adverb attachment to a phonetically empty constituent seems to be irrelevant: though constraints are active in every language, the emergence of a visible effect of their requirements in a given language depends on their relative ranking. The complex interaction of the diverse factors as well as their divergent effects on adverb placement in the various languages are accounted for by the universal constraints and their language-specific hierarchic relations in the OT framework. / Die Positionierung von Adverbien wird von syntaktischen, semantischen und pragmatischen Erwägungen geleitet; sie unterliegt der zwischen-sprachlichen als auch der einzel-sprachlichen Variation. Ziel der Arbeit ist es, diejenigen Faktoren zu identifizieren, die ausschlaggebend sind für die Platzierung von Adverbien im allgemeinen (Teil I) sowie in speziellen Konstruktionen, in denen die Schwesterkonstituente eines Adverbs aufgrund von Bewegung oder Ellipse kein phonetisches Material enthält (Gap-Konstruktionen, Teil II). Des weiteren sollen die unterschiedlichen Ausprägungen dieser Faktoren in den distributionalen Mustern des Englischen, Französischen und Deutschen in einem optimalitätstheoretischen Rahmen erklärt werden. <br><br> In der Optimalitätstheorie (Prince & Smolensky 1993) ist Grammatikalität als optimale Erfüllung einer Hierarchie von verletzbaren Constraints definiert: Für einen gegebenen Input wird eine Menge von Outputkandidaten bereitgestellt, aus der derjenige Kandidat als grammatischer Output gewählt wird, der die Constrainthierarchie am besten erfüllt. Da die hierarchischen Relationen der Constraints für die Ermittlung des grammatischen Outputs entscheidend sind, kann zwischen-sprachliche Variation auf Diskrepanzen in den einzel-sprachlichen Constrainthierarchien zurückgeführt werden. Der erste Teil der Arbeit zeigt, wie diverse Phänomene der Adverbstellung mit entsprechenden Constraints und ihren Anordnungen erfasst werden können: <br><br> - Kontraste in der Linearisierung von Adverbien und Verben/Auxiliaren im Englischen und Französischen<br> - Verbplatzierung im Deutschen und Vorfeldbesetzung<br> - Platzierung von fokus-sensitiven Adverbien<br> - Voranstellung von topikalen Argumenten und Adverbien <br><br> Der zweite Teil der Arbeit spezialisiert sich auf ein bestimmtes Phänomen der Adverbpositionierung: das Meiden der Adverb-Adjunktion an eine phonetisch leere Konstituente (Gap). Englisch und Französisch ähneln sich insofern, als die Akzeptabilität der Adverbpositionierung vor einem Gap beeinflusst wird vom Typ des Adverbs, seinem Skopus und der syntaktischen Konstruktion (Englisch: wh-Bewegung vs. Topikalisierung / VP Voranstellung / VP Ellipse, invertierte vs. nicht-invertierte Sätze; Französisch: CLLD vs. Cleft, einfache vs. periphrastische Tempusformen). Die beiden Sprachen unterscheiden sich jedoch darin, ob - und falls ja - welche Strategie ein bestimmter Typ von Adverb verfolgen kann, um der Stellung vor einem speziellen Gap zu entkommen. Im Gegensatz zum Englischen und Französischen führt die Stellung eines Adverbs vor einem Gap im Deutschen nie zu Ungrammatikalität. Vielmehr hat die Adverbpositionierung den in Teil I diskutierten syntaktischen, semantischen und pragmatischen Prinzipien zu gehorchen; ob dies in der Adjunktion eines Adverbs an eine phonetisch leere Konstituente resultiert, scheint dabei irrelevant: Obwohl Constraints in jeder Sprache aktiv sind, hängt es von ihrer relativen Anordnung zueinander ab, ob sie einen sichtbaren Effekt in einer gegebenen Sprache hinterlassen. Die komplexe Interaktion der diversen Faktoren sowie deren divergierende Ausprägung auf die Adverbplatzierung in den unterschiedlichen Sprachen können in der Optimalitätstheorie auf die universalen Constraints und deren einzel-sprachliche Anordnung zurückgeführt werden.

The purpose of this thesis is to describe the phenomenon known as the Inherency Principle in the Dutch language from the perspective of a non-native speaker. The study focuses on research and analysis of how modern journalism incorporates grammatical rules, and specifically the application of the Inherency Principle within journalistic text. The study is based on a review of several newspaper articles from a range of news categories including current affairs; culture; comment; sport etc. The structure of the sentences within these texts is critically analysed and carefully assessed to identify if the practical use of language in journalism corresponds to the rules of the Inherency Principle as defined in The Algemene Nederlandse Spraakkunst (ANS). The ANS is considered to hold some of the most important and complex grammatical functions by both expert and non-native Dutch speakers. The Inherency Principle in particular is linked to a number of issues that are explored in this paper. The second chapter of the thesis outlines the theoretical basis of the Inherency Principle using two descriptive grammatical handbooks of the Dutch language, namely Algemene Nederlandse zin, by Haeseryn et. al. from 1997, and Grammatica van de Nederlandse zin, by Vandeweghe et. al. from 2004. The subsequent chapters...

A evolução dos estudos e pesquisas sobre a língua e a linguagem no Brasil, assim como sobre os estudos especificamente vinculados ao processo de ensino e de aprendizagem da língua portuguesa como língua materna provocaram, nos últimos anos, a reflexão e o debate acerca da necessária revisão dos objetos de ensino em sala de aula e consequentemente dos materiais didático-pedagógicos. É necessário considerar que a variação e a mudança linguísticas como fatos intrínsecos aos processos sociais de uso da língua devem contribuir para que a escola entenda as dificuldades dos alunos e possa atuar mais pontualmente para que eles compreendam quando e onde determinados usos têm ou não legitimidade. Essa compreensão favorece um alto grau de consciência social e linguística, o que favorecerá o surgimento de um desempenho sociolinguístico adequado às situações interativas de que participam, sejam elas vinculadas às práticas orais, sejam elas vinculadas às práticas escritas. Uma das formas de atuação consciente para uma abordagem pedagógica deriva da contribuição científica dos estudos sobre os processos de gramaticalização das intenções. Essa ideia baseia-se no postulado de Givón sobre a experiência humana ser simbolizada nas modalidades linguísticas. É o que propomos com esta tese: discutimos o processo de gramaticalização da dúvida a partir da categoria cognitiva de tempo. / The evolution of studies and researches about the idiom and language in Brazil, as well as about the studies specifically attached to the process of teaching and learning the Portuguese language as a mother language have provoked, in the last years, the reflection and debate over the necessary review of objects of teaching in the classroom and consequently the didactic-pedagogic material. Its necessary to consider that the variation and linguistic change as intrinsic facts to the social processes of language use must contribute so that the school understands the difficulties of the students and may act more punctually so they comprehend when and where certain uses are or not legitimate. This comprehension favors a high degree of social and linguistic consciousness, which will favor the emergence of a social-linguistic performance appropriate to the interactive situations they participate, whether they are connected to oral practices or written practices. One of the ways of conscious acting to the pedagogic approach comes from the processes of grammaticalization of intentions. This idea is based on Givóns postulate on the human experience be symbolized in the linguistic modalities. It is whats intended with this thesis: to discuss the process of grammaticalization of doubt through the category cognitive of time.

Num arcabouço teórico funcionalista que prioriza o estudo da língua em constante mudança a partir de seu uso (HALLIDAY, 1978), analisam-se as alterações gramaticais e semânticas de um item lexical que sofre gramaticalização no português do Brasil. O objetivo mais geral é avaliar a diferença existente entre os modelos de análises propostos por Lehmann (1982), Hopper (1991), Heine, Claudi e Hünnemeyer (1991) e Castilho (2006), quando aplicados a dados das modalidades falada e escrita. O item escolhido para proceder ao estudo é o item-fonte adverbial FORA, que revela um percurso unidirecional no processo de gramaticalização. Evidencia-se que a essa unidireção subjaz uma rota de abstratização funcional bastante intensa que culmina com sua recategorização em item gramatical. / In a theoretical functionalist framework, which prioritizes the study of the language in constant change from its use (HALLIDAY, 1978), it is analyzed the grammatical and semantic alterations on a lexical item that suffers grammaticalization in the Portuguese from Brazil. The most general objective is to evaluate the existing difference among the models of analyses considered by Lehmann (1982), Hopper (1991), Heine, Claudi and Hünnemeyer (1991) and Castilho (2006), when applied the data of the spoken and written modalities. The chosen item to proceed the study is the adverbial item-source FORA (out), that discloses a unidirectional passage in the grammaticalization process. It is evident that to this unidirection implies to a route of sufficiently intense functional abstraction that culminates with its recategorization in the grammatical item.

A evolução dos estudos e pesquisas sobre a língua e a linguagem no Brasil, assim como sobre os estudos especificamente vinculados ao processo de ensino e de aprendizagem da língua portuguesa como língua materna provocaram, nos últimos anos, a reflexão e o debate acerca da necessária revisão dos objetos de ensino em sala de aula e consequentemente dos materiais didático-pedagógicos. É necessário considerar que a variação e a mudança linguísticas como fatos intrínsecos aos processos sociais de uso da língua devem contribuir para que a escola entenda as dificuldades dos alunos e possa atuar mais pontualmente para que eles compreendam quando e onde determinados usos têm ou não legitimidade. Essa compreensão favorece um alto grau de consciência social e linguística, o que favorecerá o surgimento de um desempenho sociolinguístico adequado às situações interativas de que participam, sejam elas vinculadas às práticas orais, sejam elas vinculadas às práticas escritas. Uma das formas de atuação consciente para uma abordagem pedagógica deriva da contribuição científica dos estudos sobre os processos de gramaticalização das intenções. Essa ideia baseia-se no postulado de Givón sobre a experiência humana ser simbolizada nas modalidades linguísticas. É o que propomos com esta tese: discutimos o processo de gramaticalização da dúvida a partir da categoria cognitiva de tempo. / The evolution of studies and researches about the idiom and language in Brazil, as well as about the studies specifically attached to the process of teaching and learning the Portuguese language as a mother language have provoked, in the last years, the reflection and debate over the necessary review of objects of teaching in the classroom and consequently the didactic-pedagogic material. Its necessary to consider that the variation and linguistic change as intrinsic facts to the social processes of language use must contribute so that the school understands the difficulties of the students and may act more punctually so they comprehend when and where certain uses are or not legitimate. This comprehension favors a high degree of social and linguistic consciousness, which will favor the emergence of a social-linguistic performance appropriate to the interactive situations they participate, whether they are connected to oral practices or written practices. One of the ways of conscious acting to the pedagogic approach comes from the processes of grammaticalization of intentions. This idea is based on Givóns postulate on the human experience be symbolized in the linguistic modalities. It is whats intended with this thesis: to discuss the process of grammaticalization of doubt through the category cognitive of time.

O romanche é um conjunto de línguas faladas na Suíça que faz parte do grupo reto-românico, ao qual, também pertencem dois outros conjuntos de línguas faladas na Itália, a saber, o ladino dolomítico e do friulano. Esta tese apresenta uma visão panorâmica e diacrônica do reto-românico em sua unidade, bem como o detalhamento da sua diversidade nas cinco línguas romanches (sobresselvano, subselvano, sobremirano, valáder e puter) e em suas variantes extintas documentadas, com vistas ao estudo da construção verbo+advérbio de lugar. Será usado como corpus todas as ocorrências dessa construção coletadas nos quinze volumes da Crestomatia Reto-românica (Rhätoromanische Chrestomatie), compilada por Decurtins (1983-1985). Diante da diversidade gráfica, referir-se-á a cada construção específica pelo uso da variante suprarregional intitulada romanche grisão (rumantsch grischun). / Romansh is a set of languages spoken in Switzerland that is part of the Rhaeto-Romance group, to which two other sets of languages spoken in Italy, namely the Dolomite Ladin and the Friulian, also belong. This work presents a panoramic and diachronic view of the Romansh in its unity, as well as the detailing of its diversity in its five Romansh languages (Surselvan, Sutsilvan, Surmiran, Valader and Puter) and its documented extinct variants, and aims to study its verb + adverb of place phrases. It will be used as corpus all the occurrences of this construction collected in the fifteen volumes of the Rhätoromanische Chrestomatie, compiled by Decurtins (1983-1985). In view of the writing diversity, reference will be made to each specific construction by the use of the supraregional variant called Rumantsch Grischun.

O romanche é um conjunto de línguas faladas na Suíça que faz parte do grupo reto-românico, ao qual, também pertencem dois outros conjuntos de línguas faladas na Itália, a saber, o ladino dolomítico e do friulano. Esta tese apresenta uma visão panorâmica e diacrônica do reto-românico em sua unidade, bem como o detalhamento da sua diversidade nas cinco línguas romanches (sobresselvano, subselvano, sobremirano, valáder e puter) e em suas variantes extintas documentadas, com vistas ao estudo da construção verbo+advérbio de lugar. Será usado como corpus todas as ocorrências dessa construção coletadas nos quinze volumes da Crestomatia Reto-românica (Rhätoromanische Chrestomatie), compilada por Decurtins (1983-1985). Diante da diversidade gráfica, referir-se-á a cada construção específica pelo uso da variante suprarregional intitulada romanche grisão (rumantsch grischun). / Romansh is a set of languages spoken in Switzerland that is part of the Rhaeto-Romance group, to which two other sets of languages spoken in Italy, namely the Dolomite Ladin and the Friulian, also belong. This work presents a panoramic and diachronic view of the Romansh in its unity, as well as the detailing of its diversity in its five Romansh languages (Surselvan, Sutsilvan, Surmiran, Valader and Puter) and its documented extinct variants, and aims to study its verb + adverb of place phrases. It will be used as corpus all the occurrences of this construction collected in the fifteen volumes of the Rhätoromanische Chrestomatie, compiled by Decurtins (1983-1985). In view of the writing diversity, reference will be made to each specific construction by the use of the supraregional variant called Rumantsch Grischun.

Num arcabouço teórico funcionalista que prioriza o estudo da língua em constante mudança a partir de seu uso (HALLIDAY, 1978), analisam-se as alterações gramaticais e semânticas de um item lexical que sofre gramaticalização no português do Brasil. O objetivo mais geral é avaliar a diferença existente entre os modelos de análises propostos por Lehmann (1982), Hopper (1991), Heine, Claudi e Hünnemeyer (1991) e Castilho (2006), quando aplicados a dados das modalidades falada e escrita. O item escolhido para proceder ao estudo é o item-fonte adverbial FORA, que revela um percurso unidirecional no processo de gramaticalização. Evidencia-se que a essa unidireção subjaz uma rota de abstratização funcional bastante intensa que culmina com sua recategorização em item gramatical. / In a theoretical functionalist framework, which prioritizes the study of the language in constant change from its use (HALLIDAY, 1978), it is analyzed the grammatical and semantic alterations on a lexical item that suffers grammaticalization in the Portuguese from Brazil. The most general objective is to evaluate the existing difference among the models of analyses considered by Lehmann (1982), Hopper (1991), Heine, Claudi and Hünnemeyer (1991) and Castilho (2006), when applied the data of the spoken and written modalities. The chosen item to proceed the study is the adverbial item-source FORA (out), that discloses a unidirectional passage in the grammaticalization process. It is evident that to this unidirection implies to a route of sufficiently intense functional abstraction that culminates with its recategorization in the grammatical item.

Thesis (doctoral)--Uppsala universitet, 1991. / Added t.p. with thesis statement inserted. Summary in English. Includes bibliographical references (p. [193]-200).