abstract: Negative bias temperature instability (NBTI) and channel hot carrier (CHC) are important reliability issues impacting analog circuit performance and lifetime. Compact reliability models and efficient simulation methods are essential for circuit level reliability prediction. This work proposes a set of compact models of NBTI and CHC effects for analog and mixed-signal circuit, and a direct prediction method which is different from conventional simulation methods. This method is applied in circuit benchmarks and evaluated. This work helps with improving efficiency and accuracy of circuit aging prediction. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.S. Electrical Engineering 2011

Renewal process has been often employed as a mathematical model of the failure and repair cycle of components in power system reliability assessment. This implies that after repair, the component is assumed to be restored to be in as good as new condition in terms of reliability perspective. However, some of the components may enter an aging stage as the system grows older. This thesis describes how aging characteristics of a system may impact the calculation of commonly used quantitative reliability indices such as Loss of Load Expectation (LOLE), Loss of Load Duration (LOLD), and Expected Energy Not Supplied (EENS). To build the history of working and failure states of a system, Stochastic Point Process modeling based on Sequential Monte Carlo simulation is introduced. Power Law Process is modeled as the failure rate function of aging components. Power system reliability analysis can be made at the generation capacity level where transmission constraints may be included. The simulation technique is applied to the Single Area IEEE Reliability Test System (RTS) and the results are evaluated and compared. The results show that reliability indices become increased as the age of the system grows.

Un modèle décrivant les phénomènes physiques internes de batteries lithium-ion est développé pour une détection précise de leur état, avec application au domaine de l'industrie automobile. Pour pouvoir utiliser le modèle à des fins de contrôle de charge rapide, un observateur de vieillissement est tout d'abord conçu et intégré au modèle de batterie. Dans un second temps, une stratégie de contrôle de charge rapide robuste est conçue. Elle est basée sur un contrôleur Crone capable de gérer les grandes incertitudes paramétriques du modèle de batterie tout en atteignant l'objectif de charge rapide. Enfin, quelques simplifications du modèle de batterie, de la technique d'optimisation et de la définition des profils de charge rapide sont proposées et évaluées afin de rendre l'ensemble de la stratégie de recharge rapide applicable à un système embarqué de gestion de batterie. / A physics-based battery model is developed for an accurate state-detection of batteries in the automotive industry. In order to use the model for the purpose of fast charging control an aging observer is designed and integrated to the battery model. In a subsequent step a robust fast charging control is introduced to design a controller able to deal with large parametric uncertainties of the battery model while achieving the fast charging target. Finally some simplifications in the battery model structure, in the optimization technique and in the definition of fast charging profiles are proposed and evaluated to make the whole model applicable for an onboard battery management system.

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La mise à l'échelle de la technologie CMOS classique augmente les performances des circuits numériques grâce à la possibilité d'incorporation de composants de circuit supplémentaires dans la même zone de silicium. La technologie FDSOI 28nm de ST Microélectroniques est une stratégie d'échelle innovante qui maintient une structure de transistor planaire et donc une meilleure performance sans augmentation des coûts de fabrication de puces pour les applications basse tension. Il est important de s'assurer que l'augmentation des fonctionnalités et des performances ne se fasse pas au détriment de la fiabilité réduite, ce qui est assuré en répondant aux exigences des normes internationales ISO26262 pour les applications critiques dans les environnements automobile et industriel. Les entreprises de semi-conducteurs, pour se conformer à ces normes, doivent donc présenter des capacités d'estimation de la fiabilité au stade de la conception du circuit, qui est pour l'instant évaluer qu'après la fabrication d'un circuit numérique. Ce travail se concentre sur le vieillissement des standard cell et des circuits numériques avec le temps sous l'influence du mécanisme de dégradation du NBTI pour une large gamme de variations de processus, de tension et de température (PVT) et la compensation de vieillissement avec l'application de la tension à la face arrière (Body-Bias). L'un des principaux objectifs de cette thèse est la mise en place d'une infrastructure d'analyse de fiabilité composée d'outils logiciels et d'un modèle de vieillissement dans un cadre industriel d'estimation du taux de défaillance des circuits numériques au stade de la conception des circuits développés en technologie ST 28nm FDSOI. / Scaling of classical CMOS technology provides an increase in performance of digital circuits owing to the possibility of incorporation of additional circuit components within the same silicon area. 28nm FDSOI technology from ST Microelectronics is an innovative scaling strategy maintaining a planar transistor structure and thus provide better performance with no increase in silicon chip fabrication costs for low power applications. It is important to ensure that the increased functionality and performance is not at the expense of decreased reliability, which can be ensured by meeting the requirements of international standards like ISO26262 for critical applications in the automotive and industrial settings. Semiconductor companies, to conform to these standards, are thus required to exhibit the capabilities for reliability estimation at the design conception stage most of which, currently, is done only after a digital circuit has been taped out. This work concentrates on Aging of standard cells and digital circuits with time under the influence of NBTI degradation mechanism for a wide range of Process, Voltage and Temperature (PVT) variations and aging compensation using backbiasing. One of the principal aims of this thesis is the establishment of a reliability analysis infrastructure consisting of software tools and gate level aging model in an industrial framework for failure rate estimation of digital circuits at the design conception stage for circuits developed using ST 28nm FDSOI technology.

As teorias de envelhecimento biológico podem ser divididas em duas categorias: as teorias bioquímicas e as teorias evolucionárias. As teorias bioquímicas explicam o envelhecimento como oriundo das imperfeições dos mecanismos bioquímicos responsáveis pela manutenção da vida. As teorias evolucionárias explicam o envelhecimento sem recorrerem a mecanismos bioquímicos, mas sim a fatores adaptativos. Neste trabalho estudamos modelos teóricos de envelhecimento a luz das teorias evolucionárias. Um dos modelos evolucionários de envelhecimento mais bem-sucedido é o modelo Penna. Estudamos alguns de seus principais resultados, entre eles a senescência catastrófica e a lei de Gompertz. Discutimos também a versão sexuada do modelo, dando especial ênfase às conseqüências da fidelidade sexual e da seletividade sexual. Em 1995, simultaneamente ao surgimento do modelo Penna, foi proposto o modelo Heumann-Hotzel. Inicialmente este modelo não foi bem-sucedido devido a algumas características pouco realistas. Mas seu insucesso foi rapidamente suplantado por algumas modificações simples e essenciais. Neste trabalho investigamos, através de simulações numéricas, regimes alternativos de reprodução no modelo Heumann-Hotzel modificado. Os regimes estudados foram: reprodução sexuada com e sem recombinação genética, partenogênese meiótica, partenogênese apomítica, hermafroditismo e parassexo. Avaliamos qual a melhor estratégia evolutiva: haploidia ou diploidia, reprodução assexuada ou reprodução sexuada e, no último caso, com ou sem recombinação genética. Dentre os regimes reprodutivos analisados, um deles mereceu especial atenção. Propusemos uma versão sexuada do modelo Heumann-Hotzel modificado, onde a população tem o genoma cronológico baseado na assimetria dos cromossomos sexuais X e Y. O modelo foi denominado Modelo do Cromossomo Y. O cromossomo Y tem uma estrutura genética muito comprometida. Ele tem menos genes do que o cromossomo X e somente um terço do seu tamanho. O cromossomo Y apresenta inúmeras seqüências de genes repetitivos e uma minoria de genes funcionais. Nos homens, os cromossomos X e Y não se recombinam, enquanto que nas mulheres, seus cromossomos X se recombinam. A degeneração do cromossomo Y tem sido explicada pela não recombinação dos cromossomos X e Y. Os resultados deste trabalho sugerem uma explicação alternativa para a degeneração do cromossomo Y. Demonstramos que mesmo quando não há recombinação dos cromossomos sexuais, e com mutações atuando com mesma intensidade e freqüência, tanto em cromossomos X, quanto em cromossomos Y, a seleção natural leva a um desfavorecimento espontâneo do cromossomo Y. Concluímos que a seleção natural leva a degeneração do cromossomo Y. / Aging theories can be classified in two types: biochemical theory and evolutionary theory. The biochemical theories explain ageing due to imperfections on the biochemical process responsible for the maintenance of life. The evolutionary theories explain aging without any biochemical mechanisms. They support only adaptive strategies, such as reproduction, heredity, mutations and natural selection. In this work we studied theoretical aging models in the light of evolutionary theories. A successful ageing model was proposed by Penna in 1995. This model can reproduce a large amount of biological features. We present a review with its most important results, including catastrophic senescence and Gompertz law. We also present the sexual version of Penna model and some consequences of sexual fidelity and sexual selection. An alternative aging model was proposed in 1995, known as Heumann- Hotzel model. At the beginning, this model did not succeed due to some unrealistic features. A few modifications were necessary to give the model interesting properties. We studied, through numerical simulations, alternative forms of reproduction in the modified Heumann-Hotzel model, including sexual reproduction with and without crossing-over, meiotic parthenogenesis, apomictic parthenogenesis, hermaphroditism and parasex. We also investigated and compared what is the best strategy: haploid or diploid populations, asexual or sexual reproduction and, in this case, with or without crossing-over. One version of the sexual reproduction deserved special attention. We propose a sexual version of the modified Heumann-Hotzel model, in which the population\'s genomes have the same symmetry as the sexual chromosomes. This model was denominated Y Chromosome Model. In comparison to the other chromosomes, the Y is poor in genes and it is often called a genetic junkyard. It has fewer genes than X chromosome and one third of its length. Besides, the Y chromosome has a large amount of repetitive gene sequences and only a small number of them have some sort of function. In men, the X and Y-chromosomes do not recombine with each other, while in women their X chromosomes do recombine with each other. Today we know that the Y chromosome degeneration occurs due to its lack of recombination. In this work we show an alternative explanation for the Y chromosome degeneration. Even in the absence of recombination and when the same number and intensity of mutations are applied on the X and Y-chromosomes, more mutations are accumulated in the Y chromosome. We conclude that natural selection leads to Y chromosome degeneration.

As teorias de envelhecimento biológico podem ser divididas em duas categorias: as teorias bioquímicas e as teorias evolucionárias. As teorias bioquímicas explicam o envelhecimento como oriundo das imperfeições dos mecanismos bioquímicos responsáveis pela manutenção da vida. As teorias evolucionárias explicam o envelhecimento sem recorrerem a mecanismos bioquímicos, mas sim a fatores adaptativos. Neste trabalho estudamos modelos teóricos de envelhecimento a luz das teorias evolucionárias. Um dos modelos evolucionários de envelhecimento mais bem-sucedido é o modelo Penna. Estudamos alguns de seus principais resultados, entre eles a senescência catastrófica e a lei de Gompertz. Discutimos também a versão sexuada do modelo, dando especial ênfase às conseqüências da fidelidade sexual e da seletividade sexual. Em 1995, simultaneamente ao surgimento do modelo Penna, foi proposto o modelo Heumann-Hotzel. Inicialmente este modelo não foi bem-sucedido devido a algumas características pouco realistas. Mas seu insucesso foi rapidamente suplantado por algumas modificações simples e essenciais. Neste trabalho investigamos, através de simulações numéricas, regimes alternativos de reprodução no modelo Heumann-Hotzel modificado. Os regimes estudados foram: reprodução sexuada com e sem recombinação genética, partenogênese meiótica, partenogênese apomítica, hermafroditismo e parassexo. Avaliamos qual a melhor estratégia evolutiva: haploidia ou diploidia, reprodução assexuada ou reprodução sexuada e, no último caso, com ou sem recombinação genética. Dentre os regimes reprodutivos analisados, um deles mereceu especial atenção. Propusemos uma versão sexuada do modelo Heumann-Hotzel modificado, onde a população tem o genoma cronológico baseado na assimetria dos cromossomos sexuais X e Y. O modelo foi denominado Modelo do Cromossomo Y. O cromossomo Y tem uma estrutura genética muito comprometida. Ele tem menos genes do que o cromossomo X e somente um terço do seu tamanho. O cromossomo Y apresenta inúmeras seqüências de genes repetitivos e uma minoria de genes funcionais. Nos homens, os cromossomos X e Y não se recombinam, enquanto que nas mulheres, seus cromossomos X se recombinam. A degeneração do cromossomo Y tem sido explicada pela não recombinação dos cromossomos X e Y. Os resultados deste trabalho sugerem uma explicação alternativa para a degeneração do cromossomo Y. Demonstramos que mesmo quando não há recombinação dos cromossomos sexuais, e com mutações atuando com mesma intensidade e freqüência, tanto em cromossomos X, quanto em cromossomos Y, a seleção natural leva a um desfavorecimento espontâneo do cromossomo Y. Concluímos que a seleção natural leva a degeneração do cromossomo Y. / Aging theories can be classified in two types: biochemical theory and evolutionary theory. The biochemical theories explain ageing due to imperfections on the biochemical process responsible for the maintenance of life. The evolutionary theories explain aging without any biochemical mechanisms. They support only adaptive strategies, such as reproduction, heredity, mutations and natural selection. In this work we studied theoretical aging models in the light of evolutionary theories. A successful ageing model was proposed by Penna in 1995. This model can reproduce a large amount of biological features. We present a review with its most important results, including catastrophic senescence and Gompertz law. We also present the sexual version of Penna model and some consequences of sexual fidelity and sexual selection. An alternative aging model was proposed in 1995, known as Heumann- Hotzel model. At the beginning, this model did not succeed due to some unrealistic features. A few modifications were necessary to give the model interesting properties. We studied, through numerical simulations, alternative forms of reproduction in the modified Heumann-Hotzel model, including sexual reproduction with and without crossing-over, meiotic parthenogenesis, apomictic parthenogenesis, hermaphroditism and parasex. We also investigated and compared what is the best strategy: haploid or diploid populations, asexual or sexual reproduction and, in this case, with or without crossing-over. One version of the sexual reproduction deserved special attention. We propose a sexual version of the modified Heumann-Hotzel model, in which the population\'s genomes have the same symmetry as the sexual chromosomes. This model was denominated Y Chromosome Model. In comparison to the other chromosomes, the Y is poor in genes and it is often called a genetic junkyard. It has fewer genes than X chromosome and one third of its length. Besides, the Y chromosome has a large amount of repetitive gene sequences and only a small number of them have some sort of function. In men, the X and Y-chromosomes do not recombine with each other, while in women their X chromosomes do recombine with each other. Today we know that the Y chromosome degeneration occurs due to its lack of recombination. In this work we show an alternative explanation for the Y chromosome degeneration. Even in the absence of recombination and when the same number and intensity of mutations are applied on the X and Y-chromosomes, more mutations are accumulated in the Y chromosome. We conclude that natural selection leads to Y chromosome degeneration.

Les technologies de transistors bipolaires à hétérojonctions (HBT) ont montré leur efficacité pour permettre aux circuits de traiter les grands signaux au delà de 100Gbit/s pour les réseaux optiques Ethernet. Pour assurer ce résultat, une bonne fiabilité doit être garantie. Des tests de vieillissements accélérés sous contraintes thermiques et électrothermiques sont réalisés et analysés avec les outils de simulation physique Sentaurus TCAD afin d’obtenir les lois de vieillissement physiques. Le modèle compact HICUM niveau 2, basé sur la physique, est utilisé pour modéliser précisément le composant avant vieillissement, puis pour ajuster les caractéristiques intermédiaires pendant le vieillissement. L’évolution des paramètres du modèle est décrit avec des équations appropriées pour obtenir un modèle électrique compact du vieillissement basé sur la physique. Les lois de vieillissement et les équations d’évolutions des paramètres avec le temps de contrainte sont implantées dans le modèle électrique de vieillissement en langage Verilog-A, ce qui permet de simuler l’impact des mécanismes de défaillances sur le circuit en conditions opérationnelles. / Modern InP Heterojunction Bipolar Transistors (HBT) technology has shown its efficiency for making large signal ICs working above 100 Gbits/s for Ethernet optical transport network. To full-fill this expectation, a good reliability has to be assured. Accelerated aging tests under thermal and electro-thermal stress conditions are performed and analyzed with Sentaurus TCAD device simulation tools to achieve the physical aging laws. The physics based advanced bipolar compact model HICUM Level 2 is used for precise modeling of the devices before aging. The HICUM parameters are extracted to fit the intermediate characterizations during aging. The evolution of the model parameters is described with suitable equations to achieve a physics based compact electrical aging model. The aging laws and the parameter evolution equations with stress time are implemented in compact electrical aging model in Verilog-A languages which allows us to simulate the impact of device failure mechanisms on the circuit in operating conditions.

Les Energies Marines Renouvelables (EMR) se développent aujourd’hui très vite tant au niveau de la recherche amont que de la R&D, et même des premiers démonstrateurs à la mer. Parmi ces EMR, l'énergie des vagues présente un potentiel particulièrement intéressant. Avec une ressource annuelle brute moyenne estimée à 40 kW/m au large de la côte atlantique, le littoral français est plutôt bien exposé. Mais l’exploitation à grande échelle de cette énergie renouvelable ne sera réalisable et pertinente qu'à condition d'une bonne intégration au réseau électrique (qualité) ainsi que d'une gestion et d'un dimensionnement optimisé au sens du coût sur cycle de vie. Une première solution de génération tout électrique pour un houlogénérateur a d’abord été évaluée dans le cadre de la thèse de Marie RUELLAN menée sur le site de Bretagne du laboratoire SATIE (ENS de Cachan). Ces travaux ont mis en évidence le potentiel de viabilité économique de cette chaîne de conversion et ont permis de poser la question du dimensionnement de l’ensemble convertisseur-machine et de soulever les problèmes associés à la qualité de l’énergie produite. Puis une seconde thèse a été menée par Judicaël AUBRY dans la même équipe de recherche. Elle a consisté, entre autres, en l’étude d’une première solution de traitement des fluctuations de la puissance basée sur un système de stockage par supercondensateurs. Une méthodologie de dimensionnement de l’ensemble convertisseur-machine et de gestion de l’énergie stockée fut également élaborée, mais en découplant le dimensionnement et la gestion de la production d’énergie et de ceux de son système de stockage. Le doctorant devra donc : 1. S’approprier les travaux antérieurs réalisés dans le domaine de la récupération de l’énergie des vagues ainsi que les modèles hydrodynamiques et mécaniques réalisés par notre partenaire : le LHEEA de l’Ecole Centrale de Nantes - 2. Résoudre le problème du couplage entre dimensionnement/gestion de la chaîne de conversion et dimensionnement/gestion du système de stockage. 3. Participer à la réalisation d’un banc test à échelle réduite de la chaine électrique et valider expérimentalement les modèles énergétiques du stockage et des convertisseurs statiques associés - 4. Proposer une méthodologie de dimensionnement de la chaine électrique intégrant le stockage et les lois de contrôle préalablement élaborées 5. Déterminer les gains en termes de capacités de stockage obtenus grâce à la mutualisation de la production (parc de machines) et évaluer l’intérêt d’un stockage centralisé - 6. Analyser l’impact sur le réseau d’une production houlogénérée selon divers scenarii, modèles et outils développés par tous les partenaires dans le cadre du projet QUALIPHE. L’exemple traité sera celui de l’Ile d’Yeu (en collaboration avec le SyDEV. / The work of this PhD thesis deals with the minimization of the per-kWh cost of direct-drive wave energy converter, crucial to the economic feasibility of this technology. Despite the simplicity of such a chain (that should provide a better reliability compared to indirect chain), the conversion principle uses an oscillating system (a heaving buoy for example) that induces significant power fluctuations on the production. Without precautions, such fluctuations can lead to: a low global efficiency, an accelerated aging of the fragile electrical components and a failure to respect power quality constraints. To solve these issues, we firstly study the optimization of the direct drive wave energy converter control in order to increase the global energy efficiency (from wave to grid), considering conversion losses and the limit s from the sizing of an electrical chain (maximum force and power). The results point out the effect of the prediction horizon or the mechanical energy into the objective function. Production profiles allow the study of the flicker constraint (due to grid voltage fluctuations) linked notably to the grid characteristics at the connection point. Other models have also been developed to quantify the aging of the most fragile and highly stressed components, namely the energy storage system used for power smoothing (with super capacitors or electrochemical batteries Li-ion) and power semiconductors.Finally, these aging models are used to optimize key design parameters using life-cycle analysis. Moreover, the sizing of the storage system is co-optimized with the smoothing management.