Orientador: Nilva Kazue Sakomura / Coorientador: Silvana Martinez Baraldi Artoni / Coorientador: Edney Pereira da Silva / Banca: Jane Lara Brandani Marques Grosso / Banca: Robert Mervyn Gous / Banca: Luciano Hauschild / Banca: Nelson José Peruzzi / Resumo: O escâner absorciometria de raios-X de dupla energia (DXA) consiste em uma técnica não invasiva para obter informações sobre a composição corporal dos animais, que permite avaliar a dinâmica de crescimento dos mesmos sem que haja a necessidade de abate. Foram conduzidos três experimentos com frangos de corte, realizados com os objetivos de determinar equações que predizem a composição corporal in vivo das aves no equipamento DXA (experimento I), e estimar o potencial genético de três linhagens comerciais (experimentos II e III). No experimento I foram utilizados 720 frangos de corte Cobb (360 machos e 360 fêmeas) distribuídos em delineamento inteiramente casualizado (DIC), dividido em esquema de parcelas subdivididas 3×2×2 (três níveis de proteína bruta nas dietas, dois sexos e duas técnicas nas sub-parcelas) com seis repetições de 20 aves cada. As dietas foram formuladas com o objetivo de alterar a composição corporal das aves, variando a proteína bruta em 70, 100, e 130% da exigência de cada fase avaliada, mas mantendo a relação entre os aminoácidos. Ao todo 216 aves foram digitalizadas no DXA para quantificação dos dados fornecidos pelo equipamento: massa magra, massa gorda, conteúdo mineral ósseo e massa total. Em seguida, as mesmas aves foram mantidas em jejum alimentar de 24h e depois, abatidas e depenadas. Foi realizada a análise química do corpo livre de penas (FFB) das aves para os conteúdos de proteína, água, lipídeos e matéria mineral. Os dados foram submetidos à a... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: The dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) consists of a noninvasive technique to obtain information about the body composition of the animals, which allows evaluating the growth dynamics of the animals without the need for slaughter. Three experiments were carried out with broilers, with the objective of determining predictive equations for the in vivo body composition of birds in the DXA equipment (experiment I), and to estimate the genetic potential of three commercial strains (experiments II and III). In the experiment I, 720 Cobb broilers (360 males and 360 females) were distributed in a completely randomized design (DIC), divided into split plot design 3 × 2 × 2 (three crude protein levels in the diets, two sexes and two methods of body evaluation at sub parcels) with six replicates of 20 birds each. The diets were formulated with the objective of altering the body composition of the birds, varying the crude protein in 70, 100, and 130% of the requirement of each evaluated phase, but maintaining the relation between the amino acids. A total of 216 birds were digitized in the DXA to quantify the data provided by the equipment: lean mass, fat mass, bone mineral content and total mass. Then, the same birds were kept in a 24-hour fasting meal, slaughtered and plucked. The chemical analysis of the feather free body (FFB) of birds was carried out for protein, water, lipids and mineral matter content. The data were submitted to analysis of variance (ANOVA), being observed differences between diets, sexes and in the quantification of body composition by the different techniques. Due to the differences between the techniques, regressions were adjusted for each chemical component of the body and for each sex. All the established equations presented an R2 <0.96 and allow the evaluation of body composition by DXA to be determi... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Doutor

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:28:24Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2011-06-16Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T20:58:03Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 lourencon_rv_me_botfmvz.pdf: 508786 bytes, checksum: c5c565099a465c8ad66e1bd45d35a71b (MD5) / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) / Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP) / Este trabalho foi realizado com o objetivo de avaliar o crescimento relativo dos cortes comerciais e dos tecidos da carcaça de caprinos. Foram utilizados 78 cabritos, machos e fêmeas, de cinco grupos raciais: Alpino; 1/2 Boer + 1/2 Alpino (1/2 BA); 1/2 Anglo Nubiano + 1/2 Alpino (1/2 ANA); 3/4 Boer + 1/4 Alpino (3/4 BA); e ½ Anglo Nubiano + ¼ Boer + ¼ Alpino (TC). Os grupos foram distribuídos em dois sistemas de terminação, pasto (ST1) e confinamento (ST2). Os cabritos foram abatidos em média aos 22,07 kg de peso vivo e 128,4 ± 7,9 dias. O peso médio das meias carcaças foi de 5,09 kg. Para determinação do crescimento alométrico foi utilizada a equação exponencial Y = aXb. O cruzamento com a raça Anglo Nubiana proporcionou o crescimento precoce da perna em relação ao peso da meia carcaça (PMC). O lombo cresceu tardiamente nos animais Alpinos e ½ ANA. Nos animais do grupo TC as costelas apresentaram crescimento tardio. Os cruzamentos não influenciaram no desenvolvimento do pescoço. A paleta foi considerada precoce nos animais ½ BA e TC. O tecido muscular, em relação ao PMC, apresentou crescimento precoce no grupo ½ BA. No ST1, a paleta cresceu precocemente, enquanto no ST2 este crescimento foi isogônico. O tecido adiposo dos animais do ST1 foi depositado tardiamente. As fêmeas apresentaram crescimento precoce de perna e tecido muscular, que nos machos foi considerado intermediário. O crescimento dos caprinos é influenciado pelos cruzamentos raciais, sistema de terminação e sexo / This work was conducted with the objective of evaluate the relative growth of carcass cuts and tissues of goats. Seventy-eight male and female kids from five racial groups were used: Alpine; ½ Boer + ½ Alpine (½ BA); ½ Nubian + ½ Alpine (½ ANA); ¾ Boer + ¼ Alpine (¾ BA); and ½ Nubian + ¼ Boer + ¼ Alpine (TC); distributed in two finishing systems, pasture (FS1) and feedlot (FS2). The kids were slaughtered at an average of 22.07 kg of live weight and 128.4 ± 7.9 days. The average weight of half carcasses was 5.09 kg. To determine the allometric growth the exponential equation was used Y= aXb. The crossing with the Anglo Nubian provided the early growth of the leg in relation to the half carcass weight. The loin grew late in the Alpine animals and ½ the ANA. In animals from group TC ribs grew late. The crossings did not influence the development of the neck. The palette was considered earlier in kids ½ BA and TC. Muscle tissue in relation to the half carcass, grew early in the group ½ BA. In FS1, the palette grew early, while this growth was intermediate in FS2. The fat tissue of animals in FS1 had a late growth. The females showed early growth of leg and muscle tissue, while in males was considered intermediate. The growth of goats is influenced by the crossings, sex and finishing system

Orientador: Marlies Sazima / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Biologia / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-16T23:39:07Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Silveira_CarinaLimada_D.pdf: 5862141 bytes, checksum: b872125bc30a6004f911ec2155703df4 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010 / Resumo: As plantas são organismos sésseis que estão à mercê do estresse ambiental. As flores são estruturas fundamentais na evolução das angiospermas, pois através delas ocorre a reprodução sexuada. Para isto, as flores exibem estratégias que auxiliam a planta a obter melhor sucesso reprodutivo. Animais visitam flores em busca de recursos, no entanto, ao transportar grãos de pólen entre os indivíduos da mesma espécie vegetal, atuam como mediadores no processo de seleção sexual, importante força na evolução florai. Fatores ecológicos que afetam a relação entre plantas e polínizadores podem influenciar a evolução das estratégias reprodutivas das espécies. Fatores abióticos, a distribuição espacial, o tamanho populacional e a história de vida das plantas podem modificar a abundância e a distribuição dos recursos para os polínizadores, alterando padrões de transporte de pólen, fluxo gênico e pressões seletivas responsáveis pela evolução floral. Este trabalho busca compreender a diversidade das estratégias reprodutivas em diferentes formações vegetais tropicais, a modulação por características vegetativas e reprodutivas das plantas e abióticas do meio na alocação de recursos como, também, verificar a existência de consistência biogeográfica dos padrões alométricos em relação as estratégias reprodutivas das plantas. O estudo foi realizado em áreas de vegetação tropical, sendo uma área de Floresta Atlântica, uma área de Cerrado, ambas no estado de São Paulo e uma área de Campo Rupestre, no estado de Minas Gerais, permitindo a comparação da variação da biomassa floral entre as três formações vegetais e entre angiospermas tropicais com particularidades morfológicas relacionadas às áreas de coleta e dados bibliográficos de espécies extra-tropicais. A riqueza de formas vegetais e de ambientes nas regiões tropicais atua na modulação da interação entre plantas e polínizadores, influenciando na variação da biomassa floral e nas características vegetativas e reprodutivas das espécies. As alometrias positivas e a isometria encontradas nas floras tropicais e extra-tropícats em relação ao crescimento da biomassa floral apontam para a presença e desenvolvimento de características sexuais secundarias como importantes ferramentas na permanência e sucesso da reprodução cruzada. Características vegetativas e reprodutivas influenciam na variação interespecífica da biomassa floral e que a função masculina da flor teria forte impacto na evolução das características florais, independentemente da ligação filogenética entre as angiospermas, ressaltando a necessidade de teorias que permitam uma síntese destas relações. / Abstract: Plants are sessile organisms exposed to the effects of environmental stress. The flowers are fundamental structures in the evolution of angiosperms, because through them is sexual reproduction. For this, the flowers exhibit strategies that help the plant to achieve better reproductive success. Animals visit flowers in search of resources, however, to carry pollen between individuals of the same plant species, act as mediators in the process of sexual selection, major force in floral evolution. Ecological factors affecting the relationship between plants atid pollinators may influence the evolution of reproductive strategies of species. Abiotic factors, spatial distribution, population size and life history of plants can modify the abundance and distribution of resources for pollinators by changing patterns of pollen transfer, gene flow and selective pressures responsible for floral evolution. This work seeks to understand the diversity of reproductive strategies in different tropical vegetation types, the modulated vegetative and reproductive features of plants and the abiotic environment in resource allocation as well, check for consistency biogeographical of allometric patterns in reproductive strategies in relation to plants. The study was conducted in areas of tropical vegetation, with an area of Atlantic Rain Forest, an area of Savannah, both in the state of Sao Paulo and an area of Campo Rupestre, in the state of Minas Gerais, allowing the comparison of variation among floral biomass the three vegetation types and between tropical angiosperm morphological peculiarities related to the areas of collection and bibliographic data of extra-tropical species. The richness of plant forms and environments in tropical acts in modulating the interaction between plants and pollinators, influencing the variation of biomass in the floral and vegetative and reproductive characteristics of species. The positive allometry and isometry floras found in tropical and extra-tropical growth over the floral biomass indicate the presence and development of secondary sexual characteristics as important tools in the permanence and success of cross-breeding. Vegetative and reproductive characteristics influence the interspecific variation of floral biomass and that the function of male flowers have a strong impact on the evolution of floral traits, regardless of the phylogenetic connection between the angiosperms, highlighting the need for theories that allow a synthesis of these relationships. / Doutorado / Ecologia / Doutor em Ecologia

Orientador: Fernando Roberto Martins / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Biologia / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-13T23:57:13Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Sims_LigiaPaulillo_M.pdf: 1997370 bytes, checksum: 7862d46e8d35044bd7c95ed32db9713f (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009 / Resumo: O presente estudo investigou a estrutura de estádios ontogenéticos e espacial da espécie Savia dictyocarpa (Phyllanthaceae) na Mata Ribeirão Cachoeira, Campinas, SP. Essa espécie dióica é comum ocupante do dossel de florestas estacionais da região sudeste do Brasil e dada sua importância resolveu-se levantar informações sobre sua história de vida. Para tanto foram feitas duas questões centrais: 1) é possível definir os estádios ontogenéticos de S. dictyocarpa a partir da variação morfométrica e arquitetural que ocorre longo da vida da espécie? 2) qual distribuição espacial dos indivíduos ao longo da ontogenia dessa espécie e quais os fatores ambientais que influem na distribuição? Nos 0,5 hectares amostrados encontramos 194 indivíduos distribuídos em 5 estádios ontogenéticos: infantil, jovem, imaturo, adulto e senil. Não encontramos plântulas ou adultos reprodutivos nas parcelas, mas encontramos algumas plântulas. Portanto a definição do estádio plântula foi feita sem considerações sobre caracteres morfométricos. Os frutos encontrados não possuíam sementes, o que pode ser indicativo de ausência de polinização de flores, seja pela baixa freqüência de indivíduos masculinos ou pela ausência de polinizador. O padrão de ramificação apresentado é próprio do modelo arquitetural de Massart, que é característico de espécies bem adaptadas às condições de pouca luz. Os estádios apresentaram diferenças significativas quanto à altura e diâmetro. Jovem e imaturo apresentaram menor aumento em diâmetro por incremento em altura, ocorrendo o inverso com o estádio adulto. O maior investimento em altura durante os estádios iniciais permite que os indivíduos alcancem rapidamente as boas condições de luminosidade próximas ao dossel, em detrimento da estabilidade mecânica. Encontramos que o investimento em altura da copa por unidade de aumento em diâmetro da copa tem tendência de aumentar ao longo da ontogenia, o que denota diferenciação entre estádios para aumento da eficiência na obtenção de luz. A infestação de lianas parece ter efeito sobre desenvolvimento da copa dos indivíduos adultos, pois indivíduos com lianas têm menor investimento em altura da copa. Todos os estádios apresentaram distribuição aleatória no espaço, sendo que imaturo e jovem possuem tendência de ocupar mesmos locais, possivelmente por necessitarem das mesmas condições ambientais para recrutamento e crescimento. Todas as correlações entre estádios e luz, solo e interferência interespecífica foram espúrias e/ou não significantes. É possível que o padrão aleatório possa ser explicado por características ambientais não consideradas nesse estudo ou por processos estocásticos. A distribuição da espécie pode também ser fortemente afetada pela distribuição de sementes, plântulas e infantes, que inexistiam na área amostrada. Os resultados encontrados sugerem que há variações nas estratégias de ocupação do ambiente e de uso dos recursos ao longo da vida de uma espécie de dossel, no entanto as características ambientais amostradas não foram capazes de explicar como esses caracteres determinam os padrões de recrutamento / Abstract: the present study investigated the ontogenetic and spatial structure of the tree species Savia dictyocarpa (Phyllanthaceae) in the Mata Ribeirão Cachoeira, Campinas municipality, SP. This is a dioecious species that commonly occur on seasonal forest canopy from southeast region of Brazil, and because of its importance we decided to gather information about its life history. To do that, we ask two main questions: 1) Can we define S. dictyocarpa ontogenetic stages using morphometric and architectural variation along the species life? ; 2) Which is the spatial distribution of different ontogenetic stages and which are the environmental factors that influence this distribution? We sampled 0,5 hectares and found 194 individuals distributed in 5 ontogenetic stages: infant, juvenile, immature and adult and senile. We did not found seedlings or reproductive adults in the plots we sampled, but we found some fruits and seedlings on the trail. Thus, seedling stage was described with no consideration of morphometric characteristics. The fruits we found did not have seeds and this fact indicates the absence of flower pollination, which could be caused by low frequency of male individuals or by absence of pollinator. The ramification pattern showed by S. dictyocarpa is correspondent to Massart architectural model, which is common for species that grow under low light conditions. Stages presented significant differences in height and diameter. Juvenile and immature presented smaller diameter increment per unit of height, and adult stage had higher diameter increment per unit of height. This suggests that in early stages a greater investment in height allows then to quickly reach for good light conditions on the forest canopy, disregarding the mechanical stability. We also found that crown length investment per unit of crown width increase along ontogeny, what shows that there is differences between stages to increase the light absorption efficiency. Liana infestation seems to affect adult crown development because individuals with liana have smaller investment in crown length. All stages presented random spatial distribution and juvenile and immature showed the tendency to occupy the same places, probably because they have the same recruitment and growth requirements. All correlations between stages and abiotic and biotic factors (light, soil and interspecific competition) were spurious or nom significant. This random pattern could be explained by environmental characteristics that were not considered here or by stochastic processes. Species distribution could also be strongly affected by seed, seedling or infant distributions, which were not found in the sampled area. These results suggests that there are different environmental occupation and resource use strategies along a canopy species live, however the environmental characteristics sampled here were not able to explain how this strategies determinates recruitment patterns in the space. To understand the absence of seeds and seedlings in the area and to propose conservation and management plans for S. dictyocarpa, reproductive biology and population dynamic studies are required / Mestrado / Ecologia / Mestre em Ecologia

Many factors affect membrane composition in ectotherms, including allometry, temperature, toxins such as PCB-153, and osmotic stress. This thesis seeks to describe the relationship between membrane composition, size, and phylogeny in twelve species of cypriniform fish; to describe interactions between the homeoviscous responses to temperature and to PCB-153 in goldfish and rainbow trout; and to describe the membrane response to hypoosmotic stress in goldfish. Commonalities in these patterns provide insight into shared mechanisms of phospholipid modulation. In particular, such similarities indicate whether the membrane pacemaker theory of metabolism, which connects allometric relationships between body size, membrane phospholipids, and metabolic rate, can serve as a general framework for understanding membrane composition. Chapter 2 investigates how cypriniform membrane unsaturation decreases with mass through different fatty acid substitutions than in endotherms, but these fatty acids are in turn shown to be due to the species’ relatedness to one another rather than to purely physiological causes. In Chapter 3, PCB-153 is shown to increase cholesterol in liver and brain, while high temperature primarily reduces phospholipid unsaturation. In Chapter 4, these patterns are further explored in trout. As in goldfish, cholesterol modulation is the primary response to PCB-153, whereas temperature primarily reduces phospholipid unsaturation. Trout show more pervasive fatty acid changes than goldfish in all tissues except the liver, which does not respond to PCB exposure, suggesting that PCB-153 pushes trout’s homeoviscous response to a limit that similarly-exposed goldfish do not face. Chapter 5 shows that goldfish intestines decrease membrane saturation; kidneys decrease membrane cholesterol; gills decrease neither; and muscles decrease both in response to long-term exposure to hypoosmotic conditions. The intestine and kidney are both involved in recovering ions from body fluids, but gills suppress ion loss and muscle concentrates ions from the bloodstream. Temperature, osmotic stress, PCB-153, and increasing body size are all addressed via a similar set of membrane responses in fish, which fits with the membrane pacemaker theory’s predictions regarding membrane composition, metabolic rate, and size.

For many animals, rapid movements place high power demands on underlying muscles. Storage of muscle energy in elastic structures and the subsequent rapid release of that energy can effectively amplify muscle power. Elastic recoil can also confer thermal robustness to performance in behaviors occurring at variable temperatures. Muscle contractile performance tends to decrease at lower temperatures, but elastic recoil is less affected by temperature. Here I examine the impacts of temperature and scale in systems using elastic recoil and I explore possible interactive effects on movement performance. I explored the role that muscle contractile properties play in the differences in performance and thermal robustness between elastic and non-elastic systems by examining muscles from two species of plethodontid salamanders with elastically powered tongue projection and one with non-elastic tongue projection. These salamanders use tongue projection to capture prey and in species with elastic mechanisms, tongue projection is characterized by higher mechanical power output and thermal robustness compared to tongue projection of closely-related genera with non-elastic mechanisms. In vitro and in situ muscle experiments reveal that species differ in their muscle contractile properties, but these patterns do not predict the performance differences between elastic and non-elastic tongue projection. Overall, salamander tongue muscles are like other vertebrate muscles in contractile performance and thermal sensitivity. I conclude that changes in the tongue-projection mechanism, specifically the elaboration of elastic structures, are responsible for high performance and thermal robustness in species with elastic tongue projection. This suggests that the evolution of high-performance and thermally robust elastic-recoil mechanisms can occur via relatively simple changes to morphology, while muscle contractile properties remain relatively unchanged. The efficacy of elastic recoil in the face of changing temperature depends on the mechanical work done by muscle contraction being unaffected by temperature. In vitro stimulation of Cuban tree frog (Osteopilus septentrionalis) plantaris muscles reveals that interactions between force and temperature affect the mechanical work of muscle. At low temperatures (9 – 17°C), muscle work depends on temperature when shortening at any force, and temperature effects are greater at higher forces. At warmer temperatures (13 – 21°C), muscle work depends on temperature when shortening with intermediate and high forces (≥ 30% peak isometric tetanic force). Shortening velocity is most strongly affected by temperature at low temperatures and high forces. Power is also most strongly affected at low temperature intervals but this effect is minimized at intermediate forces. Effects of temperature on muscle force explain these interactions; force production decreases at lower temperatures, increasing the challenge of moving a constant force relative to the muscle’s capacity. These results suggest that animal performance that requires muscles to do work with low forces relative to a muscle’s maximum force production will be robust to temperature changes, and this effect should be true whether muscle acts directly or through elastic-recoil mechanisms and whether force is prescribed (i.e. internal) or variable (i.e. external). Conversely, performance requiring muscles to shorten with relatively large forces is expected to be more sensitive to temperature changes. How muscle work and power scale determines, in part, the scaling of movement performance. Muscle-mass-specific work is predicted to remain constant across a range of scales, assuming geometric similarity, while muscle-mass-specific power is expected to decrease with increasing scale. I tested these predictions by examining muscle morphology and contractile properties of plantaris muscles from frogs ranging in mass from 1.28 to 20.60 g. Scaling of muscle work and power was examined using both linear regression on log10-transformed data (LR) and non-linear regressions on untransformed data (NLR). In LR, muscle-mass-specific work decreased with increasing scale, but this is counteracted by a positive allometry of muscle mass to predict constant movement performance at all scales. These relationships were non-significant in NLR, though scaling with geometric similarity also predicts constant jump performance across scales. Both intrinsic shortening velocity and muscle-mass-specific power were positively allometric in both types of analysis. However, these differences between methods are caused not by large changes in scaling slopes, but by changing levels of statistical significance using corrections for multiple tests. The dependence of these conclusions on the method of regression, largely because of the setting and adjusting of an arbitrary alpha, demonstrates the importance of careful consideration of statistical methods when analyzing patterns of scaling. Nonetheless, scale accounts for little variation in contractile properties over the range of scales examined, indicating that other sources of intraspecific variation may be more important in determining muscle performance and its effects on movement. Elastic recoil used for power amplification is most often found in smaller animals, suggesting that performance in larger animals using less elastic recoil would be affected more by changing temperatures. To examine the interaction between scale and temperature on performance, I recorded jumps from 1-34 g Cuban tree frogs (Osteopilus septentrionalis) at 10, 20, and 30°C and compared jump performance to predictions based on the effects of temperature and scaling on muscle properties. High muscle-mass-specific power requirements from measured jumps indicate that frogs use elastic recoil at all scales to achieve performance that would be impossible using only muscle, and elastic recoil allows small frogs to achieve the same level of performance as large frogs. Performance that is greater at all temperatures than predictions from models using only muscle power could result from some combination of elastic recoil and power directly from muscle. The relative contributions of muscle power and elastic recoil cannot be discerned by examining temperature effects on performance because these effects are predicted to be so similar. Predicted performance from models of elastic recoil is significantly affected by changing temperature at all scales with temperature coefficient (Q10) values similar to predictions for muscle-powered jumping. Measured Q10 values are similar to those from both predictive models and there is no interaction between temperature and scale. Therefore, elastic recoil allows for jump performance that could not be achieved by muscle power alone at all temperatures and scales, but performance predictions from elastic recoil are not more thermally robust than predictions for muscle-powered jumping.

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(理学) / 甲第22279号 / 理博第4593号 / 新制||理||1659(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院理学研究科生物科学専攻 / (主査)教授 本川 雅治, 准教授 中野 隆文, 教授 曽田 貞滋 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Science / Kyoto University / DGAM

Magister Scientiae (Biodiversity and Conservation Biology) - MSc (Biodiv and Cons Biol) / The Succulent Karoo Biome (SKB) in South Africa is widely reputed to house Earth’s greatest diversity of succulent plants. It is also famous for spectacular displays of annual flowers after good rains. The area experiences winter rainfall which infrequently exceeds 100 mm per annum but certain parts of the SKB can get 250 mm. Irrigated agriculture on a large scale was therefore not a viable option when European farmers began colonizing the land. The land was conquered from the indigenous Khoekhoe herders and San hunter-gatherers, South Africa’s first peoples. The biome underwent extreme transformation in the last 200 years following colonisation which resulted in homogenization of the landscape and extinction of many succulents thus reducing biodiversity.

Physiological performance has been commonly scaled for body size using various methods to scale anthropometrics, but a paucity of data exists on scaling muscle size. The aim of this thesis was to elucidate the optimal method to scale height (HT), body mass (BM), lean body mass (LBM), and muscle cross-sectional area (CSA) when scaling weightlifting performance for body size. 26 weightlifters (13 male, 13 female) participated in this study. The measurements collected were the snatch (SN), clean and jerk (CJ), isometric peak force (IPF), and countermovement jump height (CMJH). HT, LBM, BM, and vastus lateralis CSA were scaled using the ratio standard and allometry. Competition performance scaled for allometrically scaled CSA possessed greater relationships to CMJH (r = 0.60 – 0.78) than the ratio standard (r = 0.56 – 0.58). These findings suggest that allometrically scaling CSA may be superior when scaling weightlifting performance for CSA.

Predation is known to have a significant effect on life history, eliciting predictable responses. Physical constraints of body shape and size may also limit life history divergence. There may be a trade-off between adapting to predation, and limits placed by constraints that decrease life history divergence. We test this idea in the Costa Rican livebearing fish Alfaro cultratus. This species has a keeled ventral surface and does not develop a distended abdomen when pregnant like other livebearers. We describe the life history of A. cultratus in 20 different populations across predator and non-predator environments. We found significantly lower reproductive allotment in predator environments relative to non-predator environments, but no significant difference in female or male size at maturity, number of offspring, or size of offspring. We found that A. cultratus exhibit isometric patterns of allocation for clutch dry mass in relation to female dry mass in predator and non-predator environments. We suggest that body shape constraints in this species limit the life history divergence we typically see in predator and non-predator environments in other species.