<p>In this thesis, the four-color fluorescence tag-microarray minisequencing system pioneered by our group was further developed and applied for analysing genetic variation in human DNA and RNA. A SNP marker panel representing different chromosomal regions was established and used for identification of informative SNP markers for monitoring chimerism after stem cell transplantation (SCT). The success of SCT was monitored by measuring the allelic ratios of informative SNPs in follow-up samples from nine patients with leukaemia. The results agreed with data obtained using microsatellite markers. Further the same SNP marker panel was used for evaluation of two whole genome amplification methods, primer extension preamplification (PEP) and multiple displacement amplification (MDA) in comparison with genomic DNA with respect to SNP genotyping success and accuracy in tag-array minisequencing. Identical results were obtained from MDA products and genomic DNA.</p><p>The tag-microarray minisequencing system was also established for multiplexed quantification of imbalanced expression of SNP alleles. Two endothelial cell lines and a panel of ten coding SNPs in five genes were used as model system. Six heterozygous SNPs were genotyped in RNA (cDNA) from the cell lines. Comparison of the relative amounts of the SNPs alleles in cDNA to heterozygote SNPs in genomic DNA displayed four SNPs with significant imbalanced expression between the SNP alleles. Finally, the tag-array minisequencing system was modified for detection of splice variants in mRNA from five leukaemia cell lines. A panel of 20 cancer-related genes with 74 alternatively splice variants was screened. Over half of the splice variants were detected in the cell lines, and similar alternative splicing patterns were observed in each cell line. The results were verified by size analysis of the PCR product subjected to the minisequencing primer extension reaction. The data from both methods agreed well, evidencing for a high sensitivity of our system.</p>

<p>Human papillomavirus type 16 (HPV-16) is the major cause of cervical cancer. HPV-16 gene expression is tightly linked to the differentiation programme of the infected epithelium. Expression of the late genes, L1 and L2, encoding the capsid proteins, is delayed until the more terminally differentiated cells. Successful inhibition of HPV-16 late gene expression early in the viral life cycle is essential for persistence of infection, the highest risk factor for cervical cancer.</p><p>The goal of this thesis was to identify regulatory RNA elements and cellular factors that influence RNA processing events, such as alternative splicing and polyadenylation, during late gene expression. For this purpose, transfection of plasmids containing almost the full-length HPV-16 genome into HeLa cells, followed by RNA analysis, was employed. An exonic splicing enhancer (ESE) was identified that firmly supported the use of the E4 3’ splice site. A key regulator of HPV-16 gene expression, the E4 ESE was required for early mRNA splicing and polyadenylation, as well as for inhibition of premature late gene expression. The early polyadenylation signal (pAE) is also an important block of premature late gene expression. An upstream polyadenylation element (USE) was identified in the early 3’ untranslated region that enhanced polyadenylation at pAE, and interacted specifically with the cellular factors CstF-64, hnRNP C1/C2, PTB and hFip1. With the help of adenoviral E4orf4, a protein which causes dephosphorylation of SR proteins, we found that overexpression of SRp30c activated HPV-16 late gene expression by an exon skipping mechanism, and that SRp30c may interfere with early mRNA terminal exon definition.</p><p>This work identified a crucial splicing enhancer, as well as a number of cellular proteins binding to an USE in the early region of HPV-16. Furthermore, the cellular splicing factor SRp30c was shown to play a role in the regulation of HPV-16 late gene expression.</p>

3’ end cleavage and polyadenylation are important steps in the maturation of eukaryotic mRNAs. Poly(A) polymerase (PAP), the enzyme catalysing the addition of adenosine residues, exists in multiple isoforms. In this study the functional significance of multiple poly(A) polymerases have been investigated. It is concluded (i) that at least three mechanisms generate the multiple isoforms i.e. gene duplication, post-translational modification and alternative mRNA processing and (ii) that the different isoforms of poly(A) polymerases have different catalytic properties. The study highlights regulation of poly(A) polymerase activity through modulation of its affinity for the substrate as visualised by the KM parameter. We suggest that trans-acting factors modulating the KM of poly(A) polymerase will play important roles in regulating its activity. A new human poly(A) polymerase (PAPγ) encoded by the PAPOLG gene was identified. PAPγ is 65% homologous to the previously identified PAP. In human cells three isoforms of poly(A) polymerases being 90, 100 and 106 kDa in sizes are present. These native isoforms were purified. The PAPOLA gene encoded the 100 and 106 kDa isoforms while the 90 kDa isoform was encoded by the PAPOLG gene. Native PAPγ was found to be more active than 100 kDa PAP while the hyperphosphorylated 106 kDa PAP isoform was comparably inactive due to a 500-fold decrease in affinity for the RNA substrate. The PAPOLG gene was shown to encode one unique mRNA while the PAPOLA gene generated five different PAP mRNAs by alternative splicing of the last three exons. The PAPOLA encoded mRNAs were divided into two classes based on the composition of the last three exons. Poly(A) polymerases from the two classes were shown to differ in polyadenylation activities. These differences revealed two novel regulatory motifs in the extreme C-terminal end of PAP, one being inactivating and the other activating for polyadenylation activity.

ASF/SF2 is an essential splicing factor, required for constitutive splicing, and functioning as a regulator of alternative splicing. ASF/SF2 is modular in structure and contains two amino-terminal RNA binding domains (RBD1 and RBD2), and a carboxy-terminal RS domain. The results from my studies show that the different activities of ASF/SF2 as a regulator of alternative 5’ and 3’ splice site selection can be attributed to distinct domains of ASF/SF2. I show that ASF/SF2-RBD2 is both necessary and sufficient to reproduce the splicing repressor function of ASF/SF2. A SWQDLKD motif was shown to be essential for the splicing repressor activity of ASF/SF2. In conclusion, this study demonstrated that ASF/SF2 encodes for distinct domains responsible for its function as a splicing enhancer (the RS domain) or a splicing repressor (the RBD2) protein. Using a model transcript containing two competing 3’ splice sites it was further demonstrated that the activity of ASF/SF2 as a regulator of alternative 3’ splice site selection was directional: i.e. resulting in RS or RBD1 mediated activation of upstream 3’ splice site selection while simultaneously causing an RBD2 mediated repression of downstream 3’ splice site usage. In alternative 5’ splice site selection, the RBD2 alone was sufficient to reproduce the activity of the full-length protein as an inducer of proximal 5’ splice site usage, while RBD1 had the opposite effect and induced distal 5’ splice site selection. The conserved SWQDLKD motif and the RNP-1 type RNA recognition motif in ASF/SF2-RBD2 were both essential for this induction. The activity of the ASF/SF2-RBD2 domain as a regulator of alternative 5’ splice site was shown to correlate with the RNA binding capacity of the domain. Collectively, my results suggest that the RBD2 domain in ASF/SF2 plays the most decisive role in the alternative 5’ and 3’ splice site regulatory activities of ASF/SF2.

In this thesis, the four-color fluorescence tag-microarray minisequencing system pioneered by our group was further developed and applied for analysing genetic variation in human DNA and RNA. A SNP marker panel representing different chromosomal regions was established and used for identification of informative SNP markers for monitoring chimerism after stem cell transplantation (SCT). The success of SCT was monitored by measuring the allelic ratios of informative SNPs in follow-up samples from nine patients with leukaemia. The results agreed with data obtained using microsatellite markers. Further the same SNP marker panel was used for evaluation of two whole genome amplification methods, primer extension preamplification (PEP) and multiple displacement amplification (MDA) in comparison with genomic DNA with respect to SNP genotyping success and accuracy in tag-array minisequencing. Identical results were obtained from MDA products and genomic DNA. The tag-microarray minisequencing system was also established for multiplexed quantification of imbalanced expression of SNP alleles. Two endothelial cell lines and a panel of ten coding SNPs in five genes were used as model system. Six heterozygous SNPs were genotyped in RNA (cDNA) from the cell lines. Comparison of the relative amounts of the SNPs alleles in cDNA to heterozygote SNPs in genomic DNA displayed four SNPs with significant imbalanced expression between the SNP alleles. Finally, the tag-array minisequencing system was modified for detection of splice variants in mRNA from five leukaemia cell lines. A panel of 20 cancer-related genes with 74 alternatively splice variants was screened. Over half of the splice variants were detected in the cell lines, and similar alternative splicing patterns were observed in each cell line. The results were verified by size analysis of the PCR product subjected to the minisequencing primer extension reaction. The data from both methods agreed well, evidencing for a high sensitivity of our system.

Human papillomavirus type 16 (HPV-16) is the major cause of cervical cancer. HPV-16 gene expression is tightly linked to the differentiation programme of the infected epithelium. Expression of the late genes, L1 and L2, encoding the capsid proteins, is delayed until the more terminally differentiated cells. Successful inhibition of HPV-16 late gene expression early in the viral life cycle is essential for persistence of infection, the highest risk factor for cervical cancer. The goal of this thesis was to identify regulatory RNA elements and cellular factors that influence RNA processing events, such as alternative splicing and polyadenylation, during late gene expression. For this purpose, transfection of plasmids containing almost the full-length HPV-16 genome into HeLa cells, followed by RNA analysis, was employed. An exonic splicing enhancer (ESE) was identified that firmly supported the use of the E4 3’ splice site. A key regulator of HPV-16 gene expression, the E4 ESE was required for early mRNA splicing and polyadenylation, as well as for inhibition of premature late gene expression. The early polyadenylation signal (pAE) is also an important block of premature late gene expression. An upstream polyadenylation element (USE) was identified in the early 3’ untranslated region that enhanced polyadenylation at pAE, and interacted specifically with the cellular factors CstF-64, hnRNP C1/C2, PTB and hFip1. With the help of adenoviral E4orf4, a protein which causes dephosphorylation of SR proteins, we found that overexpression of SRp30c activated HPV-16 late gene expression by an exon skipping mechanism, and that SRp30c may interfere with early mRNA terminal exon definition. This work identified a crucial splicing enhancer, as well as a number of cellular proteins binding to an USE in the early region of HPV-16. Furthermore, the cellular splicing factor SRp30c was shown to play a role in the regulation of HPV-16 late gene expression.

The chimpanzee is humankind’s closest living relative and the two species diverged ~6 million years ago. Comparative studies of the human and chimpanzee genomes and transcriptomes are of great interest to understand the molecular mechanisms of speciation and the development of species-specific traits. The aim of this thesis is to characterize differences between the two species with regard to their genome sequences and the resulting transcript profiles. The first two papers focus on indel divergence and in particular, indels causing premature termination codons (PTCs) in 8% of the chimpanzee genes. The density of PTC genes is correlated with both the distance to the telomere and the indel divergence. Many PTC genes have several associated transcripts and since not all are affected by the PTC we propose that PTCs may affect the pattern of expressed isoforms. In the third paper, we investigate the transcriptome divergence in cerebellum, heart and liver, using high-density exon arrays. The results show that gene expression differs more between tissues than between species. Approximately 15% of the genes are differentially expressed between species, and half of the genes show different splicing patterns. We identify 28 cassette exons which are only included in one of the species, often in a tissue-specific manner. In the fourth paper, we use massive parallel sequencing to study the chimpanzee transcriptome in frontal cortex and liver. We estimate gene expression and search for novel transcribed regions (TRs). The majority of TRs are located close to genes and possibly extend the annotations. A subset of TRs are not found in the human genome. The brain transcriptome differs substantially from that of the liver and we identify a subset of genes enriched with TRs in frontal cortex. In conclusion, this thesis provides evidence of extensive genomic and transcriptomic variability between human and chimpanzee. The findings provide a basis for further studies of the underlying differences affecting phenotypic divergence between human and chimpanzee.

L'estudi de les diferències fenotípiques entre espècies, i entre individus, ha estat una de les grans qüestions fonamentals en els camps de la biologia evolutiva i la genètica. Ben aviat, es va fer palès que la regulació de l’expressió gènica tindria un paper clau en establir aquestes diferències de complexitat. L’adveniment de les tècniques massives de seqüenciació no van sinó confirmar aquesta visió primerenca. Avui dia coneixem un grapat de mecanismes que determinen aquestes diferències entre organismes, com són la divergència de seqüència proteica, la duplicació gènica o la divergència de la regió cis-reguladora, entre d’altres. En la darrera dècada, l’splicing alternatiu ha anat afermant-se com a mecanisme post-transcripcional freqüent i ha anat prenent protagonisme com a font de variabilitat de transcrits i isoformes proteiques, a més a més de jugar un paper regulador de l’expressió gènica. Per tant, l’splicing alternatiu és un ferm candidat a introduir diferències substancials al proteoma que expliquin la diversitat fenotípica entre organismes. Així doncs, aquest treball es va marcar com a objectiu aclarir fins a quin punt la variabilitat que introduïa l’splicing alternatiu tenia implicacions en el fenotip, quina era la seva conservació i si actuava de manera coordinada o independent amb d’altres mecanismes. En primer lloc, vam estudiar la relació que hi havia entre l’splicing alternatiu i les altres fonts moleculars de diversitat fenotípica i si era possible que l’splicing alternatiu pogués introduir variabilitat amb implicacions fenotípiques per si sola. A continuació, ens vam centrar en els mecanismes reguladors de l’expressió gènica basats en splicing alternatiu, analitzant les seves propietats i la seva conservació entre espècies. Finalment, vam examinar la implicació de l’splicing alternatiu en el fenomen de la domin{ncia gènica, ja que és un procés conegut que determina diferències fenotípiques intraespecífiques. El primer pas fou, doncs, comparar l’splicing alternatiu amb d’altres fonts moleculars de diferències fenotípiques: les divergències de la seqüència proteica, de la regió cis-reguladora del gen i de l’expressió gènica entre hum{ i ratolí. En un estudi massiu de les propietats de tots aquests fenòmens entre 13970 parelles d’ortòlegs, vam observar que l’splicing alternatiu podia introduir diferències abans que les altres variables poguessin fer-ho. Quan les identitats de seqüència proteica o de la regió cis-reguladora eren massa elevades com per introduir diferències, l’splicing alternatiu ja presentava patrons prou diferents en la concurrència d’splicing entre hum{ i ratolí. A més a més, la relació entre l’equivalència d’isoformes amb aquestes divergències també va resultar ser molt lleu, fet que ens va fer pensar que l’splicing alternatiu pot introduir isoformes específiques que contribueixin a les diferències entre espècies abans que les altres divergències puguin fer-ho. Pel que fa al segon bloc, vam investigar la conservació i propietats dels mecanismes reguladors de l’expressió gènica basats en AS. Primer de tot, vam confirmar la independència entre les divergències d’expressió gènica i l’splicing alternatiu, fet que ens indica que actuen a diferents nivells. A continuació, vam definir i classificar aquests mecanismes reguladors depenent com l’splicing alternatiu alterava l’arquitectura de dominis de les isoformes. La conservació d’aquests efectes, dels mecanismes reguladors basats en AS, va resultar ser baixa per tots els casos. Pel que fa als esdeveniments on es perdien un o més dominis a les isoformes alternatives, a més a més de ser baixa la conservació del mecanisme, també ho va ser l’equivalència dels esdeveniments d’splicing alternatiu. Així, tot i tenir efectes a nivell de seqüència no homòlegs, la funció es conservava, fet que ens porta a suggerir que aquests esdeveniments d’AS són un exemple de convergència funcional. Per últim, ens vam fixar en el procés de la dominància, abastament conegut, que introdueix diferències fenotípiques clares entre individus de la mateixa espècie, sobretot en el cas de malalties. Donat el fet que es coneixia una relació inversa entre paralogia i haploinsuficiència, per una banda, i paralogia i splicing per l’altra, sumat a la capacitat d’introduir variabilitat per part de l’splicing alternatiu, vam endegar aquest estudi amb la idea de descriure la relació entre dominància i splicing. El resultat final ens va mostrar una independència dels dos processos, fet que ens va fer qüestionar la relació entre paralogia i splicing alternatiu. Per la resta de variables estudiades, la caracterització de la dominància va concordar amb els resultats de treballs anteriors. / RESUMEN El estudio de las diferencias fenotípicas entre especies ha sido una de les cuestiones fundamentales de la biología evolutiva y la genética. Muy pronto fue evidente que la regulación de la expresión génica seria clava en el establecimiento de estas diferencias, tesis confirmada con las técnicas masivas de secuenciación actuales. Hoy en día, se conocen una serie de mecanismos que determinan estas diferencias, como son la divergencia de la secuencia proteica, la duplicación génica o la divergencia de la región cis-reguladora. En la última década, el splicing alternativo (AS) ha ido afianzándose como mecanismo post-transcripcional y ha ido tomando protagonismo como fuente de variabilidad de transcritos y isoformas, además de jugar un papel regulador de la expresión génica. Por lo tanto, el AS es un firme candidato a introducir diferencias sustanciales en el proteoma que expliquen la diversidad fenotípica entre organismos. Así pues, este trabajo se marcó como objetivo aclarar hasta qué punto la variabilidad que introducía el AS tenía implicaciones en el fenotipo, cuál era su conservación y si actuaba de manera coordinada o independiente con otros mecanismos. En primer lugar, estudiamos la relación que había entre el AS y las otras fuentes moleculares de diversidad fenotípica y si era posible que el AS pudiera introducir variabilidad con implicaciones fenotípicas por sí sola. A continuación, nos centramos en los mecanismos reguladores de la expresión génica basados en AS, analizando sus propiedades y su conservación entre especies. Finalmente, examinamos la implicación del AS en la dominancia génica. En el primer bloque comparamos el AS con otras fuentes moleculares de diferencias fenotípicas: las divergencias de la secuencia proteica, de la región cis-reguladora del gen y de la expresión génica entre humano y ratón. En un estudio masivo de las propiedades de todos estos fenómenos entre 13.970 ortólogos, observamos que el AS podía introducir diferencias antes que las otras variables pudieran hacerlo. Cuando las identidades de secuencia proteica o de la región cis-reguladora eran demasiado elevadas como para introducir diferencias, el AS ya presentaba patrones bastante diferentes en la concurrencia de AS entre humano y ratón. Además, la relación entre la equivalencia de isoformas con estas divergencias también resultó ser muy leve, lo que nos hizo pensar que el AS puede introducir isoformas específicas que contribuyan a las diferencias entre especies antes que las demás divergencias puedan hacerlo. En el segundo bloque investigamos la conservación y propiedades de los mecanismos reguladores de la expresión génica basados en AS. En primer lugar, confirmamos la independencia entre las divergencias de expresión génica y del AS, lo que nos indica que actúan a diferentes niveles. A continuación, definimos estos mecanismos reguladores dependiendo como el AS alteraba la arquitectura de dominios de las isoformas. La conservación de los mecanismos reguladores basados en AS resultó ser baja en todos los casos. En cuanto a los eventos donde se perdían uno o más dominios en las isoformas alternativas, también fue baja la equivalencia de los eventos de AS. Así, pese a tener efectos a nivel de secuencia no homólogos, la función se conservaba, lo que nos permite sugerir que éste es un escenario de convergencia funcional. Por último, nos fijamos en el proceso de la dominancia, largamente conocido, que introduce diferencias fenotípicas intraespecíficas. Dado que se conocía una relación inversa entre paralogía y haploinsuficiencia, por un lado, y paralogía y AS por la otra, sumado a la capacidad de introducir variabilidad por parte del AS, iniciamos este estudio con la idea de describir la relación entre dominancia y AS. El estudio nos mostró una independencia de los dos procesos, cuestionando así la relación entre paralogía y AS. Para el resto de variables estudiadas, la caracterización de la dominancia concordó con resultados de trabajos anteriores. / The study of phenotypic differences between species, and between individuals, has been one of the great fundamental questions in the fields of evolutionary biology and genetics. Soon, it became clear that the regulation of gene expression would have a key role in establishing these differences in complexity. The advent of mass sequencing techniques did confirm this view. Nowadays, we know a handful of mechanisms that determine these differences between organisms, such as protein sequence divergence, gene duplication and divergence of cis-regulatory region, among others. In the last decade, alternative splicing has been asserting itself as a post-transcriptional mechanism and frequently has taken center stage as a source of variability of transcripts and protein isoforms, and also as a key player in the regulation the gene expression. Therefore, alternative splicing is a strong candidate to introduce substantial differences in the proteome that could explain the phenotypic diversity among organisms. Thus, this work was intended to clarify to what extent the variability introduced the alternative splicing (AS) had implications for the phenotype, which was its conservation and if it acted in a coordinated or independent way relative to other mechanisms. First, we studied the relationship that existed between AS and other sources of molecular and phenotypic diversity and elucidate if AS could introduce phenotypic variability with its own implications. Then we focused on the regulatory mechanisms of gene expression based on AS, analyzing their properties and their conservation between species. Finally, we examined the involvement of AS in the phenomenon of genetic dominance, since it is a known process that determines intraspecific phenotypic differences. The first step was therefore to compare the AS with other sources of molecular phenotypic differences: differences in the protein sequence, the cis-regulatory region of the gene and gene expression between human and mouse. In a massive study of the properties of these phenomena among 13,970 pairs of orthologous, we observed that alternative splicing could introduce differences before other variables could do it. When the identities of protein sequence or cis-regulatory region were too high for introducing differences, AS patterns appeared quite different in the occurrence of splicing between human and mouse. Furthermore, we found that the relationship between the equivalence of isoforms with those differences was very mild, which made us think that AS can introduce specific isoforms that contribute to differences between species before other divergences can do it. Regarding the second section, we investigated the properties and the conservation of the regulatory mechanisms of gene expression based on AS. First, we confirmed the independence between the divergence of gene expression and AS, which indicates that they act at different levels. Then we defined and classified these regulatory mechanisms depending on how the AS altered the domain architecture of the isoforms. The conservation of these effects, the regulatory mechanisms based on AS, was found to be low for all cases. With regard to the events where they lost one or more domains in the alternative isoforms, in addition to the low conservation of the mechanism, it was also low the equivalence of alternative splicing events. So, despite having an non-homologue effect on the level of sequence, the function was preserved, which leads us to suggest that these AS events are an example of functional convergence. Finally, we studied the well known process of dominance which introduces clear phenotypic differences between individuals of the same species, especially in the case of diseases. Given the fact that it is known the inverse relationship between paralogy and haploinsufficiency and, in the other hand, the inverse relationship between paralogy and AS, adding to this the ability of introducing variability by AS, we undertook this study with the idea of describe the relationship between dominance and splicing. The final result showed us that they are two independent processes, which made us question the relationship between paralogy and AS. For the remaining variables, the characterization of the dominance results agreed with previous work.

Massively parallel whole transcriptome sequencing and its ability to generate full transcriptome data at the single transcript level provides a powerful tool with multiple interrelated applications, including transcriptome reconstruction, gene/isoform expression estimation, also known as transcriptome quantification. As a result, whole transcriptome sequencing has become the technology of choice for performing transcriptome analysis, rapidly replacing array-based technologies. The most commonly used transcriptome sequencing protocol, referred to as RNA-Seq, generates short (single or paired) sequencing tags from the ends of randomly generated cDNA fragments. RNA-Seq protocol reduces the sequencing cost and significantly increases data throughput, but is computationally challenging to reconstruct full-length transcripts and accurately estimate their abundances across all cell types. We focus on two main problems in transcriptome data analysis, namely, transcriptome reconstruction and quantification. Transcriptome reconstruction, also referred to as novel isoform discovery, is the problem of reconstructing the transcript sequences from the sequencing data. Reconstruction can be done de novo or it can be assisted by existing genome and transcriptome annotations. Transcriptome quantification refers to the problem of estimating the expression level of each transcript. We present a genome-guided and annotation-guided transcriptome reconstruction methods as well as methods for transcript and gene expression level estimation. Empirical results on both synthetic and real RNA-seq datasets show that the proposed methods improve transcriptome quantification and reconstruction accuracy compared to previous methods.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive and fatal neurodegenerative disease which currently lacks rapid and definitive diagnostic tests. Recently identified neuron specific splice variant molecules, Per28 and NFL-60, have been shown to contain unique epitopes and to have altered levels of expression in ALS patients. It is believed that these factors make Per28 and NFL-60 excellent candidate biomarkers for the ALS disease state. In this study, we attempted to develop ELISA assays directed against Per28 and NFL-60, as well as a generalized guideline for splice variant ELISA development, which could be used in a clinical setting. Limitations in currently identified antibodies to the splice variants allowed only for the completion of a Per28 ELISA, which lacked the sensitivity for clinical relevance. This assay creation process, however, did produce a guideline for similar ELISA development, which should allow for the more expeditious creation future ELISA.