This study seeks to flesh out a theory of national application of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR). It does so by seeking to provide an answer to the research question, ‘what is the proper role of the domestic courts in the application of the European Convention?’ By relying upon the examples of French, German, and UK law, the study argues that it is not true in descriptive terms, nor desirable in normative terms, that the domestic courts take an approach to the ECHR based upon friction and assertion of sovereignty. This study argues instead that domestic application of the ECHR is built on the attainment of certain aims. These aims are inferred, in the main, from the domestic courts’ jurisprudence, such as it relates to four central ECHR doctrines, and they are: the doctrines of evolutionary interpretation; proportionality; the margin of appreciation; and autonomous concepts. On the basis of an analysis of this jurisprudence, the four aims are identified as being, first, honouring the principle of pacta sunt servanda; secondly, the safeguarding of human rights based upon the insight that human rights are a paramount good to be pursued; thirdly, the aim of positive, as opposed to negative, rights diversity; and, fourthly, the aim that conclusions reached on the domestic level of one state must be capable of being universalized. The approach of the domestic courts to the application of the ECHR can be explained on the basis of the domestic courts’ wish to attain these four aims. The proper role played by the domestic courts, the study argues, is one in which they are willing to give a lead to Strasbourg as well as to be led, in both, to use the wording of the Preamble of the ECHR, ‘the maintenance’ and in the ‘further realisation’ of the Convention rights.

- Handling the problem of deconstruction of the law in perspective of the interpretation of the law methodology The target of this thesis is firstly to describe the concept of the deconstruction of the law - the phenomenon of the last and probably also future decades. Secondly, the thesis describes the influence of the deconstruction of the law on the interpretation of the law. The thesis is dived into the three main parts and the conclusion. The concept of the deconstruction of the law and its causes are described in the first part. The deconstruction of the law is a process changing quality of legal order. As a consequence of that interpretational difficulties come in specific situations (or more precisely - it is not sufficient to infer a legal rule from regulatory legislation just by standard interpretative methods). This process has its several causes. Decomposition of religion and ethics (as the two significant social regulatory systems) and perception of the law as a technical instrument guiding the society, they both caused the extension of the law. If the law is now understood as the technical instrument guiding the society, then an acceleration of social development results in the acceleration of changes in legal rules. The extension and dynamics of the law they both negatively influence...

Yes / In 1979, General Zia ul-Haq promulgated the Hudood Ordinances to provide Islamic punishments for several offenses, but the prosecution for extra-marital sex (zin.) has been disproportionately higher. Based on the analysis of reported judgments, I argue that the higher rate of prosecutions for zin. was a direct result of new laws. Despite carrying the name “Hudood”, these Ordinances specified several ta.z.r offenses with the objective of ensuring prosecutions. By incorporating .add and ta.z.r offenses for zin., the Zina Ordinance blurred the distinction between consensual sex and rape, and thus exposed victim women, who reported rape, to prosecution for consensual sex. The Qazf Ordinance, which might have curbed the filing of false accusations of zin., encouraged them by providing the complainants the defense of good faith. The number of zin. cases has decreased after the reform of the Zina Ordinance and the Qazf Ordinance under the Protection of Women Act, 2006.

A presente dissertação objetiva verificar a possibilidade de utilização dos cartéis de exportação tendo em vista o ordenamento jurídico brasileiro. Para tanto, um importante corte metodológico foi realizado: somente questões relativas ao direito constitucional e ao direito concorrencial foram analisadas, deixando-se de lado aquelas que nos são trazidas pelo direito internacional e pela ciência econômica. O trabalho pode ser dividido em três grandes partes. A primeira cuida de justificar a escolha do tema cartéis de exportação. Para tanto, nos valemos da idéia de que as exportações são importante instrumento do qual se valem os Estados para equilibrar a sua atividade econômica e fomentar/financiar o seu desenvolvimento. A segunda parte cuida dos acordos entre concorrentes. Nesse passo, realizamos um pequeno estudo sobre as principais Escolas ideológicas que pretendem interpretar o direito antitruste e apontar a forma correta para a sua aplicação. Em seguida, cuidamos dos cartéis clássicos (os hard core cartels) e tratamos de diferenciá-los dos demais acordos entre concorrentes. É hora então de cuidarmos especificamente dos cartéis de exportação. Traremos as suas principais características, classificações e os benefícios e malefícios que são apontados pela doutrina. Bem definidos esses instrumentos, adentramos em um terreno bastante inóspito, que é o da forma pela qual os cartéis de exportação são encarados pelos Estados e pelas associações internacionais. Observaremos que, a despeito de serem utilizados por países como os Estados Unidos, existe uma tendência de que sejam tratados como condutas anticompetitivas, a semelhança dos cartéis clássicos. Uma das possíveis justificativas para isso seria a adoção generalizada dos conceitos da Escola de Chicago e das teorias econômicas neoclássicas. A principal crítica realizada por esses doutrinadores é a de que os cartéis de exportação são formas indevidas de atuação do Estado na economia que alteram as condições naturais de concorrência no mercado internacional. A última parte dessa dissertação está voltada para a inserção de toda a discussão promovida na moldura que nos é trazida pela Constituição Federal de 1988 e pela lei Antitruste brasileira (Lei 8884/1994). Para o texto constitucional, nosso enfoque será principalmente o dos artigos 3° (objetivos fundamentais da República Federativa do Brasil) e 170 (princípios gerais da atividade econômica). Com relação à lei antitruste, a discussão será voltada para a forma pela qual os cartéis de exportação são disciplinados por nossa lei. / The present essay aims to verify the possibility of using export cartels, considering the Brazilian Law system. For that, an important methodological cut has been done: only matters regarding constitutional law and anti-trust law have been analyzed, leaving apart those matters that are brought to us by the international law and economical science. It can be divided in three big parts. The first one handles the justification for the choice of the subject export cartels. For that, we make use of the idea that the exportations are an important instrument for the Countries to balance their economical activity and stimulate/finance their development. The second part deals with the agreements between competitors. At this pace, we made a small study about the main ideological stream, that intend to understand the antitrust law and identify the correct form for its application. Following that, we mention the classical cartels (the hard core cartels) and differentiate them from the other agreements between competitors. It is time then to handle the export cartels. We mention their main traits, classification, benefits and losses that are pointed by the doctrine. Being those instruments well defined, we enter and uninviting terrain, that is the way that the countries and International Associations face the export cartels. We observe that, despite being used by countries like United States, there is a tendency to treat it like uncompetitive behavior, resembling the classical cartels. One of the possible explanations for that would be the general adoption of the concepts brought by the Chicago stream and the neoclassical economical theories. The authors main critic is that the export cartels are inappropriate methods of Government intervention in the Economy that alters the natural conditions of the competition in the international market. The last part of such essay is dedicated to the insertion of all the discussion promoted in the patters that are brought to us by the Federal Constitution of 1988 and the Anti-trust Brazilian Law (Law 8884/1994). Regarding the constitutional text, our focus in mainly on the 3rd article (fundamental goals of the Brazilian Federal Republic), and the article 170 (general principles of the economical activity). Regarding the Anti-trust law, the discussion is facing the way that the export cartels are ruled by such area of our legal system.

Diese Arbeit hat die Frage zum Gegenstand, innerhalb welchen konzeptionellen Rahmens das internationale Privatrecht (IPR) sich angesichts moderner Entwicklungen bewegen sollte. Das „klassische“ IPR geht von Recht als einem zwangsläufig staatlich gesetzten Phänomen aus, weswegen sich internationalprivatrechtliche Systeme bislang nur innerhalb der Grenzen der jeweiligen nationalen Rechtssysteme denken ließen. Die Entwicklungen der letzten Jahrzehnte zeigen jedoch, dass die soziale Realität mehr und mehr staatlich-territorialen Festlegungen entwächst und sich stattdessen funktionell ausdifferenzierte Sektoren herausbilden, für die Landesgrenzen keine Relevanz mehr besitzen. In einer globalisierten Welt, so die Argumentation dieser Abhandlung, entsteht globaler Regulierungsbedarf außerhalb der traditionellen staatlichen Rechtssysteme. Um diesem Bedarf adäquat zu begegnen, muss das IPR als übergreifendes System gedacht werden, innerhalb dessen den einzelnen Staaten lediglich die Rolle unselbständiger Subsysteme zukommt. Die Auswirkungen dieser neuen Sichtweise werden anhand des Problems der Anwendung „fremden“ Rechts untersucht. / This thesis addresses the question of what conceptual framework is adequate for private international law in the light of modern developments. “Classic” private international law conceives of “the Law” as necessarily being issued by a state entity, as a consequence of which systems of private international law so far have been conceptually limited to the realm of national law systems. The developments of recent decades, however, show that social reality transcends governmental and territorial determinations with the creation of functionally differentiated sectors regardless of territorial boundaries. According to my argumentation, globalization entails global regulation necessities outside of the traditional national systems of law. In order to adequately meet the requirements of this new reality, private international law should be conceived of as an overarching system which comprises the national systems as mere subsystems. The consequences of this new perspective are being analyzed with regard to the problem of the application of "foreign" law.

A presente dissertação objetiva verificar a possibilidade de utilização dos cartéis de exportação tendo em vista o ordenamento jurídico brasileiro. Para tanto, um importante corte metodológico foi realizado: somente questões relativas ao direito constitucional e ao direito concorrencial foram analisadas, deixando-se de lado aquelas que nos são trazidas pelo direito internacional e pela ciência econômica. O trabalho pode ser dividido em três grandes partes. A primeira cuida de justificar a escolha do tema cartéis de exportação. Para tanto, nos valemos da idéia de que as exportações são importante instrumento do qual se valem os Estados para equilibrar a sua atividade econômica e fomentar/financiar o seu desenvolvimento. A segunda parte cuida dos acordos entre concorrentes. Nesse passo, realizamos um pequeno estudo sobre as principais Escolas ideológicas que pretendem interpretar o direito antitruste e apontar a forma correta para a sua aplicação. Em seguida, cuidamos dos cartéis clássicos (os hard core cartels) e tratamos de diferenciá-los dos demais acordos entre concorrentes. É hora então de cuidarmos especificamente dos cartéis de exportação. Traremos as suas principais características, classificações e os benefícios e malefícios que são apontados pela doutrina. Bem definidos esses instrumentos, adentramos em um terreno bastante inóspito, que é o da forma pela qual os cartéis de exportação são encarados pelos Estados e pelas associações internacionais. Observaremos que, a despeito de serem utilizados por países como os Estados Unidos, existe uma tendência de que sejam tratados como condutas anticompetitivas, a semelhança dos cartéis clássicos. Uma das possíveis justificativas para isso seria a adoção generalizada dos conceitos da Escola de Chicago e das teorias econômicas neoclássicas. A principal crítica realizada por esses doutrinadores é a de que os cartéis de exportação são formas indevidas de atuação do Estado na economia que alteram as condições naturais de concorrência no mercado internacional. A última parte dessa dissertação está voltada para a inserção de toda a discussão promovida na moldura que nos é trazida pela Constituição Federal de 1988 e pela lei Antitruste brasileira (Lei 8884/1994). Para o texto constitucional, nosso enfoque será principalmente o dos artigos 3° (objetivos fundamentais da República Federativa do Brasil) e 170 (princípios gerais da atividade econômica). Com relação à lei antitruste, a discussão será voltada para a forma pela qual os cartéis de exportação são disciplinados por nossa lei. / The present essay aims to verify the possibility of using export cartels, considering the Brazilian Law system. For that, an important methodological cut has been done: only matters regarding constitutional law and anti-trust law have been analyzed, leaving apart those matters that are brought to us by the international law and economical science. It can be divided in three big parts. The first one handles the justification for the choice of the subject export cartels. For that, we make use of the idea that the exportations are an important instrument for the Countries to balance their economical activity and stimulate/finance their development. The second part deals with the agreements between competitors. At this pace, we made a small study about the main ideological stream, that intend to understand the antitrust law and identify the correct form for its application. Following that, we mention the classical cartels (the hard core cartels) and differentiate them from the other agreements between competitors. It is time then to handle the export cartels. We mention their main traits, classification, benefits and losses that are pointed by the doctrine. Being those instruments well defined, we enter and uninviting terrain, that is the way that the countries and International Associations face the export cartels. We observe that, despite being used by countries like United States, there is a tendency to treat it like uncompetitive behavior, resembling the classical cartels. One of the possible explanations for that would be the general adoption of the concepts brought by the Chicago stream and the neoclassical economical theories. The authors main critic is that the export cartels are inappropriate methods of Government intervention in the Economy that alters the natural conditions of the competition in the international market. The last part of such essay is dedicated to the insertion of all the discussion promoted in the patters that are brought to us by the Federal Constitution of 1988 and the Anti-trust Brazilian Law (Law 8884/1994). Regarding the constitutional text, our focus in mainly on the 3rd article (fundamental goals of the Brazilian Federal Republic), and the article 170 (general principles of the economical activity). Regarding the Anti-trust law, the discussion is facing the way that the export cartels are ruled by such area of our legal system.

Rättstillämpningens enhetlighet i tingsrätt och Högsta domstolen (HD) är en utgångspunkt som kommer till uttryck genom regleringen av rättskipningen i RF och av instansordningen i RB. Däremot talar flera utomrättsliga faktorer för att rättstillämpningen ändå kan skilja sig åt mellan tingsrätterna och HD. Det finns skillnader mellan domstolarnas adressater, domstolarnas arbetssituation och domarnas bakgrund. För att uppfylla uppsatsens huvudsakliga syfte att empiriskt utvärdera om det finns tendenser till skillnader i rättstillämpningen i tingsrätten jämfört med i HD, används en rättsteoretisk analys för att identifiera ett problemområde där det råder oenighet bland domare och i doktrinen om hur rättstillämpningen ska gå till på ett abstrakt plan. Problemområdet som urskiljs är användningen av objektiva ändamålsöverväganden, vilket definieras som all sådan tolkning och argumentation som inte bygger på tillämpliga lagar, prejudikat eller förarbeten. Sex rättsfall analyseras, systematiserade under tre olika typfall, i syfte att belysa och nyansera de tendenser till skillnader i användningen av objektiva ändamålsöverväganden som observeras. Undersökningens resultat är att HD generellt visar en större benägenhet att beakta olika sorters ändamålsöverväganden i sin rättstillämpning. Det anses innebära att det finns större chans att vinna framgång i rättslig argumentation som förutsätter en analog tillämpning eller reduktionsslut i HD än i tingsrätt. Däremot kan HD:s prejudikatbildande roll ha en avhållande effekt på dess benägenhet att tillämpa objektiva ändamålsöverväganden, vilket indikeras av att skillnaderna mellan HD:s och tingsrättens rättstillämpning i rättsfallen var som störst när prejudikatets innebörd var som otydligast.

Os caleidociclos têm sido utilizados como forma artística de apresentação de imagens, pinturas ou como parte de trabalhos artísticos, principalmente de imagens com simetrias; talvez os mais conhecidos sejam os trabalhos de M. C. Escher. As poucas publicações encontradas da teoria matemática envolvida nos caleidociclos dão base para imaginar e criar aplicações no desenvolvimento de habilidades e competências trabalhadas na escola. Para aumentar as possibilidades de aplicações de conceitos, teoremas e relações matemáticas estudadas no ensino básico, o presente trabalho apresenta algumas propostas de atividades utilizando os caleidociclos. As propostas foram elaboradas de acordo com o nível de ensino, ou seja, simetrias para o 7o ano, teorema de Pitágoras para os 8o e 9o anos do Ensino Fundamental, lei dos cossenos e relação fundamental da trigonometria para a 1a série e volume e área de superfície de sólidos geométricos para 2a série do Ensino Médio; algumas das propostas apresentam variações para se adequar ao nível de desenvolvimento em que a turma se encontra. Todos os moldes utilizados e outras possibilidades de caleidociclos, incluindo sólidos encaixantes aos caleidociclos, foram organizados ao final deste trabalho em um dos apêndices. Há também um apêndice com outros tipos de sólidos geométricos com movimentos, que podem ser usados no mesmo intuito de aplicação diferenciada da geometria espacial. / Kaleidocycles have been used asan artistic formof presentation of pictures, paintings or a part of artworks, especially images with symmetries; perhaps the best known works are M. C. Eschers. The few finded publications of the mathematical theory related to these three-dimensional rings give rise to imagine and create applications for developing skills to be worked in classroom. In order to increase the possibility of applications of concepts, theorems and mathematical relations, the present work proposes some activities dealing with kaleidocycles. The proposals were prepared in accordance with the students level of education, i.e., symmetries for the7th grade, the Pythagorean theorem for the 8th and 9th grades, law of cosines and the fundamental relation of trigonometry, volume and surface area of geometric solids for high school students; some of the proposals have variations to suit the level of development in which the class is at. All the molds used and other possibilities of kaleidocycles, including solids which fit into kaleidocycles, were organized at the end of this dissertation in one of the appendices. There is also an appendix with other types of mobile geometric solids that can be used in the same purpose in different applications of spatial geometry.

Cette thèse vise à analyser l’émergence de l’individu comme un sujet du droit de l’Union européenne s’affirmant face à l’État membre. Elle défend l’idée selon laquelle le droit de l’Union connaît un processus de « subjectivisation fonctionnelle », de source essentiellement juridictionnelle, qui se manifeste par la reconnaissance des droits, des intérêts et de la situation subjective de l’individu, de façon à placer ce dernier au service de la réalisation du projet d’intégration européenne. Prenant une portée constitutionnelle, ce mouvement s’inscrit dans une double logique de protection et d’instrumentalisation de l’individu par l’Union, dialectique inhérente à l’ordre juridique incomplet que constitue l’Union. / This dissertation aims at describing the emergence of the individuals as subjects of European Union law, asserting themselves against the Member State. It upholds the idea that European Union law undergoes a “functional subjectivation” process, mostly based on case-law, materialized by the recognition of the individuals’ rights, interests and subjective situation, in order to make them agents of the European integration project realization. This movement, taking on a constitutional dimension, is part of both a protective and instrumental approach of the individual by the European Union, dialectic inherent to the European Union incomplete legal order.

Syftet med studien är att utifrån fem fäders berättelser undersöka effekten av rättstillämpning vid tvist om vårdnad, boende och umgänge. Genom detta har fäders situation utifrån rådande normers påverkan i socialtjänstens och rättsväsendets agerande synliggjorts. Vi kommer att följa fem fädernas berättelser om hur deras vårdnadstvist ser ut och hur de upplever bemötande, agerande och rättstillämpning från professionella aktörer. Enligt fäderna sker detta på ett icke tillfredsställande sätt då utredningarna ofta får dem att framstå som otillräckliga föräldrar och i vissa fall även farliga för sina barn. Studien är uppbyggd av semistrukturerade intervjuer med fäder vilka samtliga varit i tvist i tingsrätt och/eller hovrätt gällande barnets vårdnad, boende eller umgänge. Med innehållsanalys, socialkonstruktivism och en rättssociologisk ansats lyfts faktorer vilka kan påverka synen på rättstillämpning och rättssäkerhet utifrån bland annat normföreställningar. Dessa faktorer speglas ur fädernas berättelser. Studiens resultat visar att normföreställningar enligt informanterna kan påverka myndigheternas bemötande och bedömning. Studiens slutsats är att i det fall fädernas berättelser speglar verkligheten talar det för att det kan finnas brister i rättstillämpningen vid utredning och bedömning i fråga om vårdnad, boende och umgänge.