This thesis examines funerary iconography for evidence of Roman attitudes towards children, childhood and the family. Based on 690 portrait monuments drawn from select areas of the Western Empire, its central hypothesis is that the commemorations are best read as highly artificial constructs which reveal more about the social preoccupations of the commissioners than the lives of the children whom they represent. The first of the seven chapters defines the parameters of the accompanying catalogue and discusses the benefits of studying a diverse range of monuments (rather than isolated "show-pieces"). The methodological section which follows assesses the cultural limitations and identification problems inherent to funerary material and considers how the terms "child" and "portrait" are best defined in this medium. The four subsequent chapters analyse the following key areas: the ages, genders and attributes of children; the presentation and composition of the family; the iconography of surrogate and extended relationships; and the archaeological context of funerary display. In each case any emotional interpretations which surround the material are discussed and then countered with alternative, and better supported, social readings. It is argued that previous research has been based on samples which are too limited in terms of size, genre and geographical scope and influenced too heavily by a desire to prove parental benevolence and the existence of "love" and "affection" within the Roman household. By exposing demographic biases and iconographic problems, it is shown that commissioners were actually using the image of the child for overtly social purposes, with some of the results being subject to substantial, and hitherto unacknowledged, regional variation. The conclusion then reassesses a well-known example to show that while Roman parents did attach importance to their children, funerary evidence can only prove it to be of a social, rather than an emotional, nature.

The separation of agricultural practice from urban communities has long been understood as a key defining feature of urban societies. This thesis investigates the relationship between developments in agriculture and urbanisation in Late Iron Age and Roman Britain. The Late Iron Age period saw the rise of oppida, characterised by extensive dyke systems, the presence of elites and imported material culture. Three models of the agricultural basis of oppida are currently available: agricultural innovations, surplus production, and non-arable settlements. These three models have been evaluated through three methods: the analysis of charred, waterlogged and mineralised plant remains from Silchester, an oppidum and civitas capital in southern Britain; the quantitative analysis of secondary archaeobotanical data from the regional area of the Hampshire Downs and the Thames Valley; and the synthesis of archaeobotanical evidence for food and agriculture at oppida and Roman towns in Britain. Key findings are that spelt wheat and barley were cultivated at Late Iron Age Silchester in combination with a new crop (flax), new management techniques (hay meadows) and the consumption of new plant foods (olives, celery and coriander). Following the establishment of the Roman civitas capital, the agricultural basis continued unchanged for several decades before a re-organisation c. AD70/80, whereby crop-processing ceased within Silchester. The regional crop-processing and weed ecology analysis shows that arable farming was conducted at Silchester, and that large-scale handling of cereals was not occurring unlike at earlier hillforts, and later towns. The evidence for animal stabling, flax cultivation, haymaking, and new plant foods from Silchester are interpreted as representing the coalescence of a rural population, developing new farming techniques to cope with the nucleated population, and therefore supportive of internal models of oppida development.

This thesis studies the evidence related to warfare and warriors in the Early Iron Age of Greece, from the eleventh to the early seventh century B.C.E. It argues that "warrior" identity, as expressed through burial with weapons or depictions of armed men and combat in pictorial painting and literature, is connected to violent action in order to create, maintain, and reinforce the relationship between authority and violent action. The forms that this violent action took were variable, from interregional conflict to overseas raids. This is outlined in Chapter 1, which is followed by two chapters summarizing the palatial (Chapter 2) and postpalatial (Chapter 3) background to the Early Iron Age. Chapters 4 to 7 present the evidence. In order to provide a more thorough analysis the focus is limited to the regions of Attica, central Euboea, the Argolid, and Knossos. The study of warfare in this period has been dominated by the study of weapons; in this thesis the approach focuses on the contexts in which these weapons are found, burials (Chapter 4), sanctuaries (Chapter 5), and occasionally settlements (Chapter 6). In these chapters the particular treatment and emphasis on weapons and armour is considered based on an understanding of these contexts in the period. In Chapter 7, representations and the treatment of warriors and warfare in Early Iron Age pictorial pottery is considered, as is briefly the literary evidence from the end of this period, which form the means by which contemporary people came to understand warfare. Chapter 8 discusses the evidence, while Chapter 9 summarizes the conclusions. This thesis shows that while warrior identity and the practice of war are closely related, in these areas of Early Iron Age Greece there are variations in the identification of men as warriors and in the intensity with which war is fought. Throughout the period, these regions express warrior identity in broadly similar ways, but with variations in duration, accessibility, and meaning. The eighth century is particularly a period of change with the intensification of warfare manifest in the destruction of settlements, but these changes are not restricted to this century, and are in many ways similar to the preceding centuries on a larger scale.

Este trabalho é fruto de uma série de processos: de pesquisas, de vontades, de lutas; que surgem da escassez e da vontade de preservar parte de um passado e melhorar a qualidade de vida da população. Assim sendo, ele é um estudo de reflexão da realidade patrimonial e social encontrada no âmbito do Ecomuseu Sítio do Físico e uma construção de uma prática possível a um trabalho de Musealização da Arqueologia, articulando as informações provenientes da Arqueologia, a busca pela conservação e comunicação proporcionada pela Museologia, tendo em vista a comunidade e seu desenvolvimento sustentável e harmonioso com ambiente em que está inserida. / This work is the result of a series of processes: of research, of wills, of struggles; Which arise from the scarcity and the will to preserve part of the past and improve the quality of life of the population. Thus, it is a study of reflection of the patrimonial and social reality found within the scope of the Ecomuseum Sítio do Físico and a construction of a possible practice to a work of Musealization of Archeology, articulating the information coming from Archeology, the search for conservation and communication provided by Museology, with a view to the community and its sustainable and harmonious development with the environment in which it is inserted.

Este trabalho é fruto de uma série de processos: de pesquisas, de vontades, de lutas; que surgem da escassez e da vontade de preservar parte de um passado e melhorar a qualidade de vida da população. Assim sendo, ele é um estudo de reflexão da realidade patrimonial e social encontrada no âmbito do Ecomuseu Sítio do Físico e uma construção de uma prática possível a um trabalho de Musealização da Arqueologia, articulando as informações provenientes da Arqueologia, a busca pela conservação e comunicação proporcionada pela Museologia, tendo em vista a comunidade e seu desenvolvimento sustentável e harmonioso com ambiente em que está inserida. / This work is the result of a series of processes: of research, of wills, of struggles; Which arise from the scarcity and the will to preserve part of the past and improve the quality of life of the population. Thus, it is a study of reflection of the patrimonial and social reality found within the scope of the Ecomuseum Sítio do Físico and a construction of a possible practice to a work of Musealization of Archeology, articulating the information coming from Archeology, the search for conservation and communication provided by Museology, with a view to the community and its sustainable and harmonious development with the environment in which it is inserted.

This thesis examines the changing form and function of non-funerary cult buildings in early Latial and Etruscan settlements in order to better describe and understand the advent of monumental temples in the archaeological record. It draws on a significant quantity of material excavated in the past forty years and developments in relevant theoretical frameworks to reconstruct the changing appearance of cult buildings from huts to shrines and temples (Chapters 2 to 4), and to place monumental examples within wider religious, topographical, and functional contexts (Chapters 5 to 7). This broader perspective allows a more accurate assessment of the extent to which monumental temples represent continuity and discontinuity with earlier religious architecture, and furthermore clarifies the respective roles of Latium and Etruria in the transformation of cult buildings into distinctive, prominent parts of the built environment. Although it is possible to find many different accounts of religious monumentalisation in existing scholarship, this thesis holds that traditional narratives no longer accurately reflect the archaeological evidence. It sets out a sequence of developments in which early religious architecture was a dynamic, rather than conservative, phenomenon. It demonstrates that temples were not the inevitable product of a natural progression from open-air votive deposition to monumentality, or simply an imported concept, but rather a deliberate response to the opportunities offered by an increasingly mobile Mediterranean population. It also contends that Latium played a more important role in formulating the characteristic components and functions of central Italic temples than previously thought. This thesis consequently offers a new account of early religious architecture in western central Italy as well as an alternative interpretation of its monumentalisation.

Submitted by Kenia Bernini (kenia.bernini@ufpel.edu.br) on 2017-05-30T18:56:15Z No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Thaíse_Sá_Freire_Rocha_Dissertação.pdf: 3729456 bytes, checksum: e007cf38a1bf059abbd430ecb5e1b61b (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Aline Batista (alinehb.ufpel@gmail.com) on 2017-05-30T20:21:36Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Thaíse_Sá_Freire_Rocha_Dissertação.pdf: 3729456 bytes, checksum: e007cf38a1bf059abbd430ecb5e1b61b (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Aline Batista (alinehb.ufpel@gmail.com) on 2017-05-30T20:22:25Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Thaíse_Sá_Freire_Rocha_Dissertação.pdf: 3729456 bytes, checksum: e007cf38a1bf059abbd430ecb5e1b61b (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-05-30T20:22:33Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Thaíse_Sá_Freire_Rocha_Dissertação.pdf: 3729456 bytes, checksum: e007cf38a1bf059abbd430ecb5e1b61b (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-04-26 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / O presente trabalho busca refletir sobre qual a relação estabelecida entre Arqueologia e a comunidade de Carangola, Minas Gerais. O município de Carangola, devido ao seu potencial arqueológico, se tornou alvo de diferentes pesquisas arqueológicas nos últimos dois séculos. A partir de uma análise das ações desenvolvidas no município, foi possível perceber não só os impactos que esses trabalhos tiveram na comunidade local, como também, de que forma essas ações influenciaram na percepção dessas pessoas sobre a Arqueologia, o trabalho da/o arqueóloga/o e o patrimônio arqueológico. Para a concretização dessa empreitada, procurei pensar em uma Arqueologia decolonizante em consonância com a Arqueologia Pública, que busca compreender a correlação entre comunidade e patrimônio arqueológico. Em termos práticos, a abordagem ocorreu por meio da Arqueologia etnográfica, onde a etnografia é entendida como uma proposta que vem para integrar o fazer arqueológico. Com os dados obtidos através da minha inserção na comunidade de Carangola, foi possível evidenciar que a Arqueologia é entendida como escavação e a procura de coisas arqueológicas. Essa forma tradicional de pensar e compreender a disciplina arqueológica, é percebida nessa dissertação, como um reflexo da atuação de diferentes arqueólogas/os no município. Diante desses dados, a reflexão sobre uma Arqueologia decolonizante e pública se torna essencial. A forma na qual a disciplina vem sendo apresentada e desenvolvida nos lugares onde passa, tem perpetuado um pensamento cientificista tradicional, que acaba por excluir o “outro” das narrativas desenvolvidas dentro da pesquisa arqueológica e na própria construção de uma história local / The present work seeks to reflect on the relationship established between Archeology and the community of Carangola, Minas Gerais. The municipality of Carangola, due to its archaeological potential, has become the target of different archaeological investigations in the last two centuries. From an analysis of the actions carried out in the municipality, it was possible to perceive not only the impacts that these works had on the local community, but also how these actions influenced the perception of these people on Archeology, the work of the archaeologist and the patrimony archaeological. For the accomplishment of this work, I tried to think of a decolonizing archeology in consonance with Public Archeology, which seeks to understand the correlation between community and archaeological heritage. In practical terms, the approach took place through ethnographic archeology, where ethnography is understood as a proposal that comes to integrate archaeological work. With the data obtained through my insertion in the community of Carangola, it was possible to show that Archeology is understood as excavation and the search for archaeological things. This traditional way of thinking and understanding the archaeological discipline is perceived in this dissertation, as a reflection of the performance of different archaeologists in the municipality. Given these data, the reflection on a decolonizing and public archeology becomes essential. The way in which the discipline has been presented and developed in the places where it passes has perpetuated a traditional scientistic thought, which ends up excluding the "other" from the narratives developed within the archaeological research and the construction of a local history

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / This work deals with the emergence of the city of Aracaju as a modern landscape, aiming, at one time, to deal with multitemporal contingencies that enabled this emergency, without losing sight of its spatiality. The objective is to analyse the material characteristics of the Aracaju city landscape. To do so, we start with na archaeological approach of the landscape in relation with subjects such as history, anthropology, geography and architecture. The materiality, as a support of time, and its implantation, as a testimony in space, are the vestiges of the construction of Aracaju that we aim to emphasize. The temporality of capitalism will be contemplated by an archaeological approach, however, without compromising with an archeology of capitalism in order to avoid historical anachronism. Spatiality will be approached trying to balance the advantages and limitations of a systemic approach in consideration of the spatial characteristics of capitalism present in the conformation of the city. Attention will be given to navigation aiming to restore the "aquatic designs" as a condition of an historical transformation to the nineteenth century. Together with the environmental peculiarities and the space built, this activity brought a concrete dimension of the relations continuum that we understand by landscape. / Este trabalho aborda a emergência da cidade de Aracaju, enquanto paisagem moderna, visando, a um só tempo, dar conta das contingências multitemporais que possibilitaram essa emergência, sem perder de vista sua espacialidade. O objetivo é analisar as características materiais da paisagem aracajuana. Para tanto, partiremos de uma abordagem arqueológica da paisagem em diálogo com disciplinas como história, antropologia, geografia e arquitetura. A materialidade, como suporte do tempo, e sua implantação, como testemunho no espaço, são os vestígios da construção da Aracaju que objetivamos evidenciar. A temporalidade do capitalismo será contemplada por uma abordagem arqueológica atenta a seu caráter mundial, porém, sem se comprometer com uma arqueologia do capitalismo visando evitar anacronismo histórico. A espacialidade será abordada tentando equilibrar as vantagens e limitações de uma abordagem sistêmica à consideração das características espaciais do capitalismo presentes na conformação da cidade. O devido relevo será dado à navegação objetivando restituir aos “desígnios aquáticos” a condição de devir histórico imanente a penetração capitalista. Juntamente com as peculiaridades ambientais e o espaço construído tal atividade legou a dimensão concreta do continuum de relações que compreendemos por paisagem. / Laranjeiras, SE

This study examines mid- to late Holocene Later Stone Age archaeological residues – specifically flaked stone artefacts, ostrich eggshell beads and pottery – from Namaqualand, north-western South Africa. Through its implication in all models so far proposed, Namaqualand is crucial to understanding the introduction of herding to the southern African subcontinent. Despite numerous publications on early herding, many key debates remain unresolved. The study focuses on the northern and central Namaqualand coastline, but sites from other parts of Namaqualand are also described. The stone assemblages are grouped according to variation in materials and retouch and then, along with data from ostrich eggshell beads and pottery, analysed graphically for temporal and other patterning. A cultural sequence is then presented. Using this sequence, key debates on early herding are explored and a hypothesis on its origins is constructed. Indigenous hunter-gatherers occupied the region throughout the Holocene and made Group 1 lithic assemblages from quartz and cryptocrystalline silica with frequent retouched tools primarily in cryptocrystalline silica. A new population – likely Proto-Khoekhoe-speaking hunter-gatherers with limited numbers of livestock – entered the landscape approximately 2000 years ago. They made Group 3 assemblages from clear quartz focusing on backed bladelets. Diffusion of stock and pottery among the local population occurred during this period. Later, c. AD 500, a new wave of migrants appeared. These last were the ancestors of the historically observed Khoekhoe pastoralists; they made Group 2 lithic assemblages on milky quartz without retouched tools. Bead diameter generally increases with time and contributes nothing to the debate. The pottery sequence is still too patchy for meaningful interpretation but differs from that elsewhere. Overall, the differing cultural signatures in western South Africa suggest that, although many questions will likely remain unanswered, a better understanding of southern African early herding will only be possible with a study addressing all regions simultaneously.

This thesis concerns the factors underlying the popularity of the cliff tomb, a local burial form in the Sichuan Basin in China in the Eastern Han dynasty (AD 25-220). The development of the cliff tomb was held in a complex set of connections to the development of the burial forms, and existed through links to many other contemporary burial forms, the brick chamber tomb, the stone chamber tomb, and the princely rock-cut tomb. These connections and links formed to a large extent through the incorporation of the Sichuan area into the empire which began in the fourth century BC. It was in this context, a series of factors contributed to the formation and popularity of the cliff tombs in Sichuan. The hilly topography and the soft sandstone, easy to cut, provided the natural condition for the development of the cliff tombs. The decision to make use of this natural condition was affected by many factors rooted in the social background. The inherent nature of the cliff tomb structure was fully explored, which was then followed by a series of corresponding innovations on the pictorial carvings and the burial objects. The meaning of a continuous family embedded in the cliff tomb structure was explored, as the construction of the tomb was the result of the continuous endeavours from many generations of the family, and the physical form of the cliff tomb was a metaphor for a prosperous family. Following this intention of the tomb occupants underlying the design of the cliff tomb structure, the pictorial carvings and the burial objects in the cliff tomb made adaptations to make the cliff tomb an embodiment of relations between different family members and different generations.