Submitted by Valquíria Barbieri (kikibarbi@hotmail.com) on 2018-04-20T19:58:13Z No. of bitstreams: 1 DISS_2015_Joamir Barbosa Filho.pdf: 2018118 bytes, checksum: fa73638ec7b30d1374e71327092e2fe6 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Jordan (jordanbiblio@gmail.com) on 2018-05-03T17:43:44Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 DISS_2015_Joamir Barbosa Filho.pdf: 2018118 bytes, checksum: fa73638ec7b30d1374e71327092e2fe6 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-05-03T17:43:44Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 DISS_2015_Joamir Barbosa Filho.pdf: 2018118 bytes, checksum: fa73638ec7b30d1374e71327092e2fe6 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-04-30 / CAPES / A Khaya anthotheca A. Juss. (Welw.) é uma espécie de mogno africano que desponta no cenário brasileiro como alternativa promissora para o florestamento visando a produção de madeira nobre. Contudo, o elevado custo de suas sementes aliado ao curto período de viabilidade são alguns fatores que dificultam a oferta de mudas no mercado a preços acessíveis. O objetivo da presente pesquisa foi avaliar a eficiência das técnicas de miniestaquia, enxertia e alporquia visando estabelecer protocolos de propagação clonal de genótipos de Khaya anthotheca. Na primeira etapa do experimento de miniestaquia, as minicepas foram submetidas às seguintes soluções de fertirrigação: S100 - 100% da concentração dos sais da solução nutritiva básica (testemunha), S50 - 50% da concentração dos sais da solução nutritiva básica e S25 - 25% da concentração dos sais da solução nutritiva básica. O delineamento experimental foi em blocos completos ao acaso em arranjo fatorial (3x5) com parcelas subdivididas no tempo, sendo os fatores constituídos por 3 soluções de fertirrigação (S100, S50 e S25) e 5 coletas de propágulos, sendo avaliadas a sobrevivência e a produção de miniestacas. Na segunda etapa do experimento de miniestaquia, foram confeccionadas miniestacas a partir dos propágulos obtidos de minicepas, as quais foram submetidas a diferentes soluções nutritivas (S100, S50 e S25). Parte das miniestacas foram tratadas com ácido indolbutírico (AIB), na concentração de 2 g.L-1 e a outra parte não foi tratada com AIB (testemunha). O experimento foi conduzido no delineamento inteiramente casualizado no arranjo fatorial (3x5x2) com parcelas subdivididas no tempo, sendo os fatores constituídos por 3 soluções de fertirrigação (S100, S50 e S25), 5 coletas de propágulos e duas concentrações de AIB (A0 - ausência de AIB, testemunha e A2 - 2 g.L-1 de AIB), sendo avaliada a sobrevivência de miniestacas na saída da casa de vegetação (SCV); sobrevência na saída da casa de sombra (SCS); enraizamento em pleno sol (EAPS) e presença de calo (CAL). Em um terceiro experimento referente às combinações entre enxertos de Khaya anthotheca e Swietenia macrophylla King., foram testadas combinações de porta-enxerto + enxerto, as quais foram: TSK - Swietenia macrophylla + Khaya anthotheca; TKS - Khaya anthotheca + Swietenia macrophylla; TSS - Swietenia macrophylla + Swietenia macrophylla; TKK - Khaya anthotheca + Khaya anthotheca. O experimento foi conduzido no delineamento em blocos ao acaso, sendo os tratamentos constituídos pela combinação dos materiais enxertados onde foi avaliado o pegamento aos 45 e aos 200 dias após a realização do enxerto, seguido da análise histológica. No quarto experimento foi realizada a alporquia nas mudas de Khaya anthotheca que estavam sendo fertirrigadas com as soluções S100, S50 e S25 e, após 45 dias, foi realizada a alporquia com três concentrações de AIB (A0 - ausência de AIB, testemunha; A3 - 3 g.L-1 de AIB e A8 - 8 g.L-1 de AIB). O experimento foi conduzido no delineamento em blocos completos ao acaso, em arranjo fatorial (3x3), sendo os fatores constituídos por 3 soluções de fertirrigação e 3 concentrações de AIB. A xii sobrevivência de minicepas não variou significativamente ao longo das coletas de brotações e não dependeu da solução nutritiva. A produção de miniestacas por metro quadrado ao ano dependeu da solução nutritiva, onde a S100 (100% da concentração de macro e micronutrientes) resultou nos maiores valores para a maioria das coletas de brotações. Houve elevada sobrevivência de miniestacas na saída da casa de vegetação, independente das coletas de propágulos, solução nutritiva e aplicação de AIB. A porcentagem de sobrevivência de miniestacas na saída da casa de sombra e o enraizamento em área de pleno sol foram maiores quando as minicepas receberam as soluções de fertirrigação S100 e S50 associada a presença de AIB na concentração de 2 g.L-1. Os menores índices de enraizamento e os maiores de calos ocorreram nas miniestacas advindas de minicepas tratadas com a solução S25 na ausência da aplicação de AIB. Na enxertia, o melhor tratamento em relação à sobrevivência dos enxertos, tanto aos 45, quanto aos 200 dias foi a combinação de TKK (92%), seguido pela combinação TSK (52%), TSS (48%). Não houve pegamento nos enxertos de TKS, demonstrando incompatibilidade entre as espécies ao usar esse tipo de enxertia. Para a alporquia, as mudas tratadas com solução S100 e S50, seguidas de aplicação de AIB (3 g.L-1 ou 8 g.L-1) apresentaram os maiores percentuais de enraizamento. No tratamento com a solução S25 sem aplicação de AIB ocorreu maior formação de calos e menor de enraizamento. No geral, as três técnicas de propagação (miniestaquia, enxertia e alporquia) foram adequadas para a multiplicação de Khaya anthotheca, demostrando viabilidade para a produção de mudas. / Khaya anthotheca A. Juss. (Welw.) is a species of african mahogany that rises in brazilian scene as a promising alternative for forestation with species of hardwood. However, the high cost of its seeds and its short period of viability are some factors that hinder the provision seedlings in the market at affordable prices. The aim this research was to evaluate the efficiency of minicutting technique, grafting and air layering to establish an clonal propagation method for Khaya anthotheca. In the first experiment of minicutting, ministumps were treated with the following fertigation solutions: S100 - 100% of nutrient concentration (control solution), S50 - 50% of nutrient concentration and S25 - 25% of nutrient concentration. The experimental design was randomized complete block in a factorial arrangement (3x5) with split-plot in the time. The factors consisted of 3 fertirrigation solutions (S100, S50 and S25) and 5 propagules collection. Ministump survival and minicutting production were evaluated. In the second stage of the experiment, minicuttings were submitted to different nutrient solutions and part of them been treated with Indol-3-butyric acid - IBA (2 g.L-1) and other part was not treated with IBA (control). The experimental design was completely randomized in a factorial arrangement (3x5x2) with split-plot in time. The factors consisting of 3 fertirrigation solutions (S100, S50 and S25), 5 propagules collection and two IBA concentrations (A0 - without AIB, A2 - 2 g.L-1 IBA). Minicutting survival in greenhouse (SCV); minicutting survival in shade-house (SCS), adventitious rooting in full sun area (EAPS) and presence of callus (CAL) were evaluated. In the grafting, combinations of Khaya anthotheca and Swietenia macrophylla King. were tested (rootstock + graft): TSK - Swietenia macrophylla + Khaya anthotheca; TKS - Khaya anthotheca + Swietenia macrophylla; TSS - Swietenia macrophylla + Swietenia macrophylla; TKK - Khaya anthotheca + Khaya anthotheca. The experimental design was randomized complete block, with the treatments constituted by 4 grafting combination. The survival was evaluated at 45 and 200 days after the grafting, followed by histological analysis. The fourth experiment was performed air layering in seedlings of Khaya anthotheca. Seedlings were fertigated with solutions of S100, S50 and S25, and after 45 days, was performed air layering with application of three IBA concentrations (A0 - without IBA, control; A3 - 3 g.L-1 IBA and A8 - 8 g.L-1 AIB). The experimental design was randomized complete block in a factorial arrangement (3x3). The factors consist of 3 fertigation solutions and 3 IBA concentrations. Survival of ministumps did not vary significantly, regardless of shoots collection and nutrient solution. The S100 solution resulted in higher values of minicuttings production per square meter per year. The minicutting survival in the greenhouse was high, regardless of the shoots collection, nutrient solution and IBA application. The minicuttings survival in shade house and rooting in full sun area were xiv higher when treated with S100 and S50 solutions and application of 2 g.L-1 de IBA. The S25 solution in the IBA absence resulted in low rooting index and greater callogenesis index. In grafting, the best survival (45 and 200 days) was the TKK combination (92%), followed by the TSK (52%) and TSS (48%). There wasn’t survival in grafting of TKS, indicating incompatibility. For air layering, the seedlings treated with S100 and S50 solutions and AIB application (3 g.L-1 and 8 g.L-1) showed the highest adventitious rooting percentage. The S25 solution without IBA application increased the callus formation and low adventitious rooting. The three propagation techniques (i.e., minicutting, grafting and air layering) were suitable for multiplication of Khaya anthotheca, demonstrating feasibility for the clone production.

Environmental conditions can influence epigenetic variability of clonal organisms. These environmentally induced changes have potential to persist in following generations. In theory, this transgenerational memory could allow clonal (and especially apomictic) plants to partly compensate reduced genetic variability and could enhance adaptative ability of apomictic populations. According to Muller's ratchet model, asexual organisms amass deleterious mutations, which could lead to their extinction. Possible transgenerational memory could partly compensate for this. It could also account for longtime survivorship of asexual organisms in environment. This thesis deals with transgenerational memory of triploid apomictic populations of Hieracium alpinum, with completely missing sexuality and thus genetically uniform offspring. Transgenerational effect in Hieracium alpinum was studied on clonal lineages originated from 5 populations (Norway, Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Slovakia). Seeds were planted in cultivation experiment I in 3 treatments (control, added nutrients, added salicylic acid) and vegetative and generative traits were measured. Plants responded to nutrient addition but not to salicylic acid. Treatment with nutrient addition increased biomass, number of leaves and SLA (specific leaf...

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The resting resistant stage has several important roles for phytoplankton microorganisms. It protects them from hostile conditions, allows them to spread to new locations and is often part of their life cycle. Chrysophytes form large populations for only a short part of the year, and therefore the formation of a resting stage is key for them to re-establish a vegetative population the following year. Chrysophyte resting stages are called stomatocysts, which are silicified and have a unique species-specific morphology. They can be form after both sexual and asexual reproduction. This is an understudied area. Most described stomatocysts are not assigned to species and much is not known about the triggers of encystation and excystation. It is thought that a combination of external (temperature, light, nutrients) and internal (cell age and cell concentration) factors are involved. So far, only sexual encystation in Dinobryon cyindricum and Synura petersenii has been studied in detail. My diploma thesis is based on laboratory experiments with Ochromonas tuberculata, Synura uvella and two strains of Synura petersenii. The aim of the study was to investigating whether external conditions such as temperature and lack of nitrogen or phosphorus have the effect on asexual encystation and whether it is...

3 vidéos sont dans des fichiers complémentaires à ce mémoire / Les champignons mycorhiziens à arbuscules (CMA) ont une structure génétique très particulière et certains aspects de leur génétique sont encore incompris et peu documentés. Les CMA se reproduisent par voie asexuée à l’aide de spores multinucléées. Dans cette étude, j’ai cherché à comprendre les mécanismes de l’hérédité génétique des noyaux par la voie de la reproduction asexuée chez les CMA. La première étape était de déterminer le contenu en noyaux des spores matures, ainsi que celui des spores en formation. Des analyses statistiques ont été utilisées pour vérifier le type de relation entre le nombre de noyaux et le diamètre des spores. Quatre espèces du genre Glomus ont été observées au microscope confocal. Les résultats démontrent une hétérogénéité entre les spores dans leur contenu en noyau pour un même diamètre en plus d’une relation positive entre le nombre de noyau et le diamètre de la spore. Afin de vérifier le contenu en noyaux dans les phases extraracinaires, trois différentes structures du mycélium ont été observées au microscope confocal. Aucune structure n’a été retrouvée avec un seul noyau, ce qui permet de conclure que les CMA ne possèdent vraisemblablement pas de stade uninucléé dans leurs phases extraracinaires. Pour étudier l’hérédité des noyaux, deux différentes approches ont été utilisées: (i) Glomus irregulare a été mis sur milieu complémenté avec de l’aphidicoline pour inhiber la mitose. Des observations au microscope confocal ont permis de dénombrer les noyaux qui sont issus des hyphes et non des mitoses. Les résultats indiquent que la population de noyaux présents dans les spores matures provient d’une migration massive de noyaux à l’intérieur des spores en formation suivie d’un nombre faible de mitoses. (ii) La deuxième approche est l’observation microscopique en temps-réel de spores en formation de G. diaphanum qui a permis de confirmer cette affirmation, car il a été possible de voir plusieurs noyaux entrer dans la spore. Dans la dernière partie de cette étude, je me suis intéressée aux échanges génétiques horizontaux chez les CMA qui sont possibles grâce aux anastomoses. Quatre isolats de l’espèce G. irregulare ont été croisés en co-culture par couple de deux isolats (six croisements) pour permettre une proximité propice aux anastomoses et aux échanges génétiques. Ces croisements ont été maintenus pendant deux ans en culture par le repicage des racines colonisées. Des spores des deux différents isolats ont été confrontées sur eau gélifiée, afin d’observer la formation d’anastomose. Un pourcentage de 13% de formation de fusions d’hyphes pour une des confrontations suggère que l’échange des marqueurs parentaux a pu avoir lieu entre les deux isolats grâce aux anastomoses. Un marqueur moléculaire mitochondrial nommé Indel 5 a été développé et utilisé pour l’analyse des spores filles. Ce marqueur possède entre les isolats une délétion de 39 pb et la différence entre les isolats est facilement détectable sur gel d’électrophorèse après amplification PCR. Le génotypage par PCR des spores individuelles a montré que certaines des spores filles issues du croisement possèdent un des deux marqueurs parentaux alors que d’autres spores ont un génotype qui semble posséder les deux marqueurs. Même si la fusion d’hyphes entre spores en germination est possible, d’autres recherches devront être réalisées pour confirmer qu’un échange génétique est possible entre deux isolats très éloignés géographiquement. Le fait qu’il n’existe aucun stade uninucléé au cycle de vie des CMA et qu’il y ait une migration massive de noyaux lors de la formation des spores permet de limiter la dérive génique lors de la reproduction asexuée. Les anastomoses, quant à elles, permettent de rétablir la diversité génétique. Ces deux particularités de la génétique des CMA ont été fort importantes au cours de leur évolution pour permettre de maintenir une variabilité génétique élevée et permettre ainsi une grande adaptation à différents type d’habitats. / Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) have a particular and complex genetic structure. Yet, many aspects of their genetics are still misunderstood and poorly documented. These organisms reproduce by asexual multinucleate spores. In this study, I investigated the mechanisms of genetic inheritance of nuclei through asexual reproduction in AMF. First, I determined the number of nuclei in mature and juveniles spores; I used statistical analysis to determine the relationship between the number of nuclei and the spore diameter. Four species from the genus Glomus were observed with a confocal microscope. The results showed that the number of nuclei has a significant positive relationship with spore diameter and more importantly, surprising heterogeneity in the number of nuclei among sister spores was found. To determine the number of nuclei in extraradical phases, three different structures from the mycelia were carefully examined with a confocal microscope. All the structures possessed more than one nucleus and showed that AMF probably lack a single-nucleus stage during their extraradical phases. To study the nuclei’s heritance, two different approaches were used: (i) Glomus irregulare was grown on medium complemented with aphidicolin to inhibit the mitosis. Observations with a confocal microscope permit to count the nuclei that come from the hyphae and not from the mitosis. The results showed that massive nuclear migration and mitosis are the mechanisms by which AMF spores are formed. (ii) The second approach confirm these results because with time-laps live cellular imaging of young spores of Glomus diaphanum it was possible to see many nuclei to get in the spores. In a second part of this thesis, I studied horizontal gene exchanges among AMF isolates through anastomoses. Thus, four isolates of the species G. irregulare were used in in vitro crossing experiments, in total six combinations using two isolates per crossing experiment. These crossing co-cultures were maintained over two years by subculturing. Spores of two different isolates were confronted in vitro prior to observation of anastomoses. 13% of spores formed anastomoses suggesting the occurrence of genetic exchange between two isolates. A mitochondrial molecular marker referred as Indel 5, was used to genotype individual spores of crossing progenies. A 39 bp deletion occurs in the marker among different isolates and is clearly discriminated by PCR. PCR patterns showed that some spores seem to have both parental markers demonstrating that genetic exchange could occur between the two isolates used in crossing experiment. Even though hyphal fusions occur between germinating spores, subsequent research needs to be done to confirm genetic exchange among different isolates from different geographic areas. The finding that AMF lack a single nuclear stage in their extraradical phases and that mitosis and nuclear migration are the mechanisms by which AMF spores are formed reduce genetic drift that acts on these organisms during asexual reproduction. Anastomoses are likely a mechanism that maintains the genetic diversity in AMF. These genetic characteristics of AMF were very important during their evolution to maintain a high genetic variability that allows their adaptation to many different ecosystems.

Dentre as poucas espécies de Eucalyptus que apresentam aptidão ao cultivo em regiões de baixas temperaturas e a geadas frequentes, destacam-se genótipos de Eucalyptus benthamii que representam opções para futuros plantios florestais em diferentes regiões brasileiras. Porém, existem poucas informações quanto a obtenção de mudas clonais, e se focarmos as espécies aconselhadas para o plantio em condições subtropicais, tal carência é ainda maior, principalmente ao considerar os fatores endógenos e exógenos para o enraizamento adventício. Baseado no exposto, o presente trabalho teve como objetivo geral avaliar aspectos morfofisiológicos da clonagem de genótipos de Eucalyptus benthamii por meio das técnicas de miniestaquia e micropropagação. Para tanto, o trabalho foi dividido em quatro estudos básicos. O primeiro estudo (Capítulo 2) baseou-se na avaliação da morfofisiologia de um minijardim clonal em relação a diferentes concentrações de Zn e B ao longo de sucessivas coletas de brotações. O segundo estudo (Capítulo 3) foi baseado em avaliar o enraizamento de miniestacas quanto a diferentes concentrações de Zn e B e aplicação de AIB ao longo de sucessivas coletas de brotações. O terceiro estudo (Capítulo 4) baseou-se em avaliar a dinâmica de enraizamento de miniestacas quanto a diferentes concentrações de AIB, tempo ótimo de permanência de miniestacas enraizadas em casa de vegetação e a origem da conexão vascular da raiz emitida. Por fim, o quarto estudo (Capítulo 5) foi baseado no desenvolvimento e estabelecimento de protocolo para a micropropagação visando a produção de microcepas para formar um microjardim clonal. Em termos gerais, a sobrevivência das minicepas, produção de miniestacas por metro quadrado ao ano e os teores foliares de macro e micronutrientes variaram significativamente em relação as concentrações de Zn e B, apresentando diferentes respostas ao longo das coletas de brotações no minijardim clonal. Os teores foliares de carboidratos solúveis não estruturais variaram significativamente de acordo com as coletas de brotações e solução nutritiva, sendo que o aumento das concentrações de Zn e B na solução nutritiva induziu a redução dos teores de carboidratos solúveis não estruturais. A porcentagem de enraizamento dos materiais clonais foi baixa, sendo considerados de difícil propagação pela miniestaquia. A presença de Zn e B na solução nutritiva (concentrações variando de 1,0 a 2,0 mg L-1) associadas a presença de AIB induziram os maiores índices de enraizamento. A aplicação de AIB na concentração de 2.000 mg L-1 favoreceu a indução de raízes, e o intervalo de 35 a 42 dias foi o mais indicado para a permanência das miniestacas enraizadas em casa de vegetação. De acordo com as análises histológicas da rizogênese foi verificado que a raiz adventícia apresentou conexão direta com o câmbio vascular. A multiplicação in vitro de gemas axilares dependeu do clone, meio de cultura e concentração de regulador de crescimento e, o alongamento de brotações dependeu do clone e regulador de crescimento. O protocolo de micropropagação foi eficiente para a produção de microplantas de Eucalyptus benthamii as quais podem ser usadas para a formação de um microjardim clonal. / Few Eucalyptus species present adaptation for cultivation in regions subject to low temperatures and frequent frosts, and Eucalyptus benthamii genotypes may represent options for future forest plantations in different regions of Brazil, in view of its excellent silvicultural performance in these conditions. However, there is little information on obtaining clones, and considering the species recommended for planting in subtropical conditions, this lack of information is even greater, mainly when considering the endogenous and exogenous factors for the adventitious rooting. Based on these information, the present work was aimed the conducting of studies on morphophysiological aspects during the cloning of Eucalyptus benthamii through of the mini-cuttings and micropropagation techniques. Therefore, the work was divided into four basic studies. The first study (Chapter 2) was based in evaluate the morphophysiology of a clonal mini-garden regarding to Zn and B concentrations during successive shoot collections. The second study (Chapter 3) was based in evaluate the induction of adventitious rooting in mini-cuttings regarding to genotype, Zn and B concentrations, shoot collections and IBA application. The third study (Chapter 4) was based in evaluate the adventitious rooting percentage of selected genotypes regarding the IBA concentration, optimal time of permanence of rooted mini-cuttings in a greenhouse and the origin of the vascular connection. Finally, the fourth study (Chapter 5) was based in develop a method for cloning of selected genotypes through micropropagation technique for the formation of a clonal micro-garden. In overall terms, mini-stumps survival, mini-cuttings production per square meter per year and foliar content of macro and micronutrients varied significantly in relation to treatments, presenting different responses according to shoots collection of the clonal mini-garden. The content of soluble carbohydrates non-structural of leaves varied regarding the shoots collection and nutrient solution. The increasing of the Zn and B concentrations in the nutrient solution induced reduction of the total content of soluble carbohydrates non-structural of leaves. The adventitious rooting percentage was low, and the genotypes were considered difficult to propagation by mini-cuttings technique. The ministumps fertigated with nutrient solutions containing Zn and B (concentrations of 1.0 at 2.0 mg L-1) associated with the IBA application presented the greater adventitious rooting percentage. The IBA application in the concentration of 2,000 mg L-1 resulted in the greater speed of rooting and rooting percentage, and the interval of 35 to 42 days was the most suitable for the permanence of mini-cuttings rooted in a greenhouse. According to the histological analysis of rhizogenesis was verified that the adventitious root presented direct connection to the vascular cambium. The in vitro multiplication of axillary buds depends of the genetic material, culture medium and concentration of plant growth regulator and, the shoots elongation depends of the genetic material and plant growth regulator. The micropropagation protocol was efficient for the microplants production of Eucalyptus benthamii and can be used to form a clonal microgarden.

The aim of this thesis was to increase knowledge about metapopulation and metacommunity processes in patchy, dynamic landscapes, using epiphytic bryophytes as a model system. Host trees and deciduous forest stands in the coniferous landscape are patchy, temporal and undergo changes in habitat quality during succession. Epiphytes must track this dynamic habitat network for their long-term survival. Community patterns at different spatial scales were explored and linked to regional metapopulation processes and local population dynamics. Spatial structuring in species richness both at a local and regional scale indicated stronger dispersal limitation but lower sensitivity to habitat quality in species with large asexual than in species with small sexual diaspores. In sexually dispersed species, a strong rescue effect was indicated by a bimodal frequency distribution of the species and by increasing local abundance with increasing patch connectivity. Present connectivity to other deciduous forest patches had positive effects on richness of asexually dispersed species, whereas richness of sexually dispersed species was instead related to the landscape connectivity 30 years ago. A study of local growth and reproduction suggested that this is caused by delayed sexual, but not asexual, reproduction. Habitat conditions affected the production of sporophytes, but not of asexual diaspores. No differences in either growth rates or competitive abilities among species with different dispersal and life-history strategies were found. In vitro experiments showed that establishment is higher from large asexual diaspores than from small sexual. Establishment of all diaspore types was limited by pH. There were indications of trade-offs between high germination and protonemal growth rates, desiccation tolerance and a rapid development of shoots from protonema. The results indicated that the epiphyte metacommunity is structured by two main trade-offs: dispersal distance (diaspore size) versus age at first reproduction, and dispersal distance versus sensitivity to habitat quality. Trade-offs in species traits may have evolved as a consequence of conflicting selection pressures imposed by habitat turnover, connectivity and irregular water supply rather than by species interactions. Syndromes of interrelated species traits imply that fairly small changes in habitat conditions can lead to distinct changes in metacommunity diversity: the results indicate that increasing distances among patches cause most harm to asexually dispersed species, whereas cuttings of forests of high age and quality as well as increasing patch dynamics are most harmful to sexually dispersed species. / Senarelagd disputation från: 2009-09-26, Lindahlsalen, EBC, Villavägen 9, 75236 Uppsala, Uppsala, 10:00

Les champignons mycorhiziens à arbuscules (CMA) ont une structure génétique très particulière et certains aspects de leur génétique sont encore incompris et peu documentés. Les CMA se reproduisent par voie asexuée à l’aide de spores multinucléées. Dans cette étude, j’ai cherché à comprendre les mécanismes de l’hérédité génétique des noyaux par la voie de la reproduction asexuée chez les CMA. La première étape était de déterminer le contenu en noyaux des spores matures, ainsi que celui des spores en formation. Des analyses statistiques ont été utilisées pour vérifier le type de relation entre le nombre de noyaux et le diamètre des spores. Quatre espèces du genre Glomus ont été observées au microscope confocal. Les résultats démontrent une hétérogénéité entre les spores dans leur contenu en noyau pour un même diamètre en plus d’une relation positive entre le nombre de noyau et le diamètre de la spore. Afin de vérifier le contenu en noyaux dans les phases extraracinaires, trois différentes structures du mycélium ont été observées au microscope confocal. Aucune structure n’a été retrouvée avec un seul noyau, ce qui permet de conclure que les CMA ne possèdent vraisemblablement pas de stade uninucléé dans leurs phases extraracinaires. Pour étudier l’hérédité des noyaux, deux différentes approches ont été utilisées: (i) Glomus irregulare a été mis sur milieu complémenté avec de l’aphidicoline pour inhiber la mitose. Des observations au microscope confocal ont permis de dénombrer les noyaux qui sont issus des hyphes et non des mitoses. Les résultats indiquent que la population de noyaux présents dans les spores matures provient d’une migration massive de noyaux à l’intérieur des spores en formation suivie d’un nombre faible de mitoses. (ii) La deuxième approche est l’observation microscopique en temps-réel de spores en formation de G. diaphanum qui a permis de confirmer cette affirmation, car il a été possible de voir plusieurs noyaux entrer dans la spore. Dans la dernière partie de cette étude, je me suis intéressée aux échanges génétiques horizontaux chez les CMA qui sont possibles grâce aux anastomoses. Quatre isolats de l’espèce G. irregulare ont été croisés en co-culture par couple de deux isolats (six croisements) pour permettre une proximité propice aux anastomoses et aux échanges génétiques. Ces croisements ont été maintenus pendant deux ans en culture par le repicage des racines colonisées. Des spores des deux différents isolats ont été confrontées sur eau gélifiée, afin d’observer la formation d’anastomose. Un pourcentage de 13% de formation de fusions d’hyphes pour une des confrontations suggère que l’échange des marqueurs parentaux a pu avoir lieu entre les deux isolats grâce aux anastomoses. Un marqueur moléculaire mitochondrial nommé Indel 5 a été développé et utilisé pour l’analyse des spores filles. Ce marqueur possède entre les isolats une délétion de 39 pb et la différence entre les isolats est facilement détectable sur gel d’électrophorèse après amplification PCR. Le génotypage par PCR des spores individuelles a montré que certaines des spores filles issues du croisement possèdent un des deux marqueurs parentaux alors que d’autres spores ont un génotype qui semble posséder les deux marqueurs. Même si la fusion d’hyphes entre spores en germination est possible, d’autres recherches devront être réalisées pour confirmer qu’un échange génétique est possible entre deux isolats très éloignés géographiquement. Le fait qu’il n’existe aucun stade uninucléé au cycle de vie des CMA et qu’il y ait une migration massive de noyaux lors de la formation des spores permet de limiter la dérive génique lors de la reproduction asexuée. Les anastomoses, quant à elles, permettent de rétablir la diversité génétique. Ces deux particularités de la génétique des CMA ont été fort importantes au cours de leur évolution pour permettre de maintenir une variabilité génétique élevée et permettre ainsi une grande adaptation à différents type d’habitats. / Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) have a particular and complex genetic structure. Yet, many aspects of their genetics are still misunderstood and poorly documented. These organisms reproduce by asexual multinucleate spores. In this study, I investigated the mechanisms of genetic inheritance of nuclei through asexual reproduction in AMF. First, I determined the number of nuclei in mature and juveniles spores; I used statistical analysis to determine the relationship between the number of nuclei and the spore diameter. Four species from the genus Glomus were observed with a confocal microscope. The results showed that the number of nuclei has a significant positive relationship with spore diameter and more importantly, surprising heterogeneity in the number of nuclei among sister spores was found. To determine the number of nuclei in extraradical phases, three different structures from the mycelia were carefully examined with a confocal microscope. All the structures possessed more than one nucleus and showed that AMF probably lack a single-nucleus stage during their extraradical phases. To study the nuclei’s heritance, two different approaches were used: (i) Glomus irregulare was grown on medium complemented with aphidicolin to inhibit the mitosis. Observations with a confocal microscope permit to count the nuclei that come from the hyphae and not from the mitosis. The results showed that massive nuclear migration and mitosis are the mechanisms by which AMF spores are formed. (ii) The second approach confirm these results because with time-laps live cellular imaging of young spores of Glomus diaphanum it was possible to see many nuclei to get in the spores. In a second part of this thesis, I studied horizontal gene exchanges among AMF isolates through anastomoses. Thus, four isolates of the species G. irregulare were used in in vitro crossing experiments, in total six combinations using two isolates per crossing experiment. These crossing co-cultures were maintained over two years by subculturing. Spores of two different isolates were confronted in vitro prior to observation of anastomoses. 13% of spores formed anastomoses suggesting the occurrence of genetic exchange between two isolates. A mitochondrial molecular marker referred as Indel 5, was used to genotype individual spores of crossing progenies. A 39 bp deletion occurs in the marker among different isolates and is clearly discriminated by PCR. PCR patterns showed that some spores seem to have both parental markers demonstrating that genetic exchange could occur between the two isolates used in crossing experiment. Even though hyphal fusions occur between germinating spores, subsequent research needs to be done to confirm genetic exchange among different isolates from different geographic areas. The finding that AMF lack a single nuclear stage in their extraradical phases and that mitosis and nuclear migration are the mechanisms by which AMF spores are formed reduce genetic drift that acts on these organisms during asexual reproduction. Anastomoses are likely a mechanism that maintains the genetic diversity in AMF. These genetic characteristics of AMF were very important during their evolution to maintain a high genetic variability that allows their adaptation to many different ecosystems. / 3 vidéos sont dans des fichiers complémentaires à ce mémoire

Le cliquet de Muller est un modèle mathématiques illustrant l'accumulation de mutations délétères dans une population asexuée. L'idée principale est que l'absence de recombinaison oblige les enfants à avoir au moins autant de mutations nocives que leurs parents, et au bout d'un certain temps, le nombre minimum de mutations délétères de la population, qui est donc un processus croissant, augmente : on dit alors que le cliquet clique. Le modèle du cliquet de Muller qui est étudié dans cette thèse est un système infini d'équations différentielles stochastiques de Fleming-Viot couplées. On montre dans une première partie d'abord que le cliquet s'actionne en temps fini p.s., puis que l'espérance du temps mis pour cliquer est également finie. On utilise pour cela des comparaisons d'équations stochastiques et des changements de temps. Dans une deuxième partie, on démontre que ce modèle est équivalent à un modèle du look-down modifié auquel on a ajouté des mutations et des morts. Puis dans la troisième partie on généralise le résultat de la deuxième à un cadre plus large de systèmes d'équations différentielles stochastiques. / Muller's Ratchet is a model from evolutionary theory describing the accumulation of deleterious mutations in asexually reproducing population. The lack of recombination implies that children have all the deleterious mutations of his parent. The minimal number of deleterious mutations carried in the population is an non-decreasing process, and if it increases we say that the Muller's ratchet clicks. The model studied in this thesis is an infinite system of stochastic differential equations. In the first chapter, we first prove that the ratchet clicks in finite time a.s., then that the clicking time has finite expectation. For this we use comparison arguments and time changes. In the second chapter, we prove that this model is equivalent to a modified look-down model with mutation and selection. In the third chapter we generalize the results of chapter 2 to a more general model.

Dentre as poucas espécies de Eucalyptus que apresentam aptidão ao cultivo em regiões de baixas temperaturas e a geadas frequentes, destacam-se genótipos de Eucalyptus benthamii que representam opções para futuros plantios florestais em diferentes regiões brasileiras. Porém, existem poucas informações quanto a obtenção de mudas clonais, e se focarmos as espécies aconselhadas para o plantio em condições subtropicais, tal carência é ainda maior, principalmente ao considerar os fatores endógenos e exógenos para o enraizamento adventício. Baseado no exposto, o presente trabalho teve como objetivo geral avaliar aspectos morfofisiológicos da clonagem de genótipos de Eucalyptus benthamii por meio das técnicas de miniestaquia e micropropagação. Para tanto, o trabalho foi dividido em quatro estudos básicos. O primeiro estudo (Capítulo 2) baseou-se na avaliação da morfofisiologia de um minijardim clonal em relação a diferentes concentrações de Zn e B ao longo de sucessivas coletas de brotações. O segundo estudo (Capítulo 3) foi baseado em avaliar o enraizamento de miniestacas quanto a diferentes concentrações de Zn e B e aplicação de AIB ao longo de sucessivas coletas de brotações. O terceiro estudo (Capítulo 4) baseou-se em avaliar a dinâmica de enraizamento de miniestacas quanto a diferentes concentrações de AIB, tempo ótimo de permanência de miniestacas enraizadas em casa de vegetação e a origem da conexão vascular da raiz emitida. Por fim, o quarto estudo (Capítulo 5) foi baseado no desenvolvimento e estabelecimento de protocolo para a micropropagação visando a produção de microcepas para formar um microjardim clonal. Em termos gerais, a sobrevivência das minicepas, produção de miniestacas por metro quadrado ao ano e os teores foliares de macro e micronutrientes variaram significativamente em relação as concentrações de Zn e B, apresentando diferentes respostas ao longo das coletas de brotações no minijardim clonal. Os teores foliares de carboidratos solúveis não estruturais variaram significativamente de acordo com as coletas de brotações e solução nutritiva, sendo que o aumento das concentrações de Zn e B na solução nutritiva induziu a redução dos teores de carboidratos solúveis não estruturais. A porcentagem de enraizamento dos materiais clonais foi baixa, sendo considerados de difícil propagação pela miniestaquia. A presença de Zn e B na solução nutritiva (concentrações variando de 1,0 a 2,0 mg L-1) associadas a presença de AIB induziram os maiores índices de enraizamento. A aplicação de AIB na concentração de 2.000 mg L-1 favoreceu a indução de raízes, e o intervalo de 35 a 42 dias foi o mais indicado para a permanência das miniestacas enraizadas em casa de vegetação. De acordo com as análises histológicas da rizogênese foi verificado que a raiz adventícia apresentou conexão direta com o câmbio vascular. A multiplicação in vitro de gemas axilares dependeu do clone, meio de cultura e concentração de regulador de crescimento e, o alongamento de brotações dependeu do clone e regulador de crescimento. O protocolo de micropropagação foi eficiente para a produção de microplantas de Eucalyptus benthamii as quais podem ser usadas para a formação de um microjardim clonal. / Few Eucalyptus species present adaptation for cultivation in regions subject to low temperatures and frequent frosts, and Eucalyptus benthamii genotypes may represent options for future forest plantations in different regions of Brazil, in view of its excellent silvicultural performance in these conditions. However, there is little information on obtaining clones, and considering the species recommended for planting in subtropical conditions, this lack of information is even greater, mainly when considering the endogenous and exogenous factors for the adventitious rooting. Based on these information, the present work was aimed the conducting of studies on morphophysiological aspects during the cloning of Eucalyptus benthamii through of the mini-cuttings and micropropagation techniques. Therefore, the work was divided into four basic studies. The first study (Chapter 2) was based in evaluate the morphophysiology of a clonal mini-garden regarding to Zn and B concentrations during successive shoot collections. The second study (Chapter 3) was based in evaluate the induction of adventitious rooting in mini-cuttings regarding to genotype, Zn and B concentrations, shoot collections and IBA application. The third study (Chapter 4) was based in evaluate the adventitious rooting percentage of selected genotypes regarding the IBA concentration, optimal time of permanence of rooted mini-cuttings in a greenhouse and the origin of the vascular connection. Finally, the fourth study (Chapter 5) was based in develop a method for cloning of selected genotypes through micropropagation technique for the formation of a clonal micro-garden. In overall terms, mini-stumps survival, mini-cuttings production per square meter per year and foliar content of macro and micronutrients varied significantly in relation to treatments, presenting different responses according to shoots collection of the clonal mini-garden. The content of soluble carbohydrates non-structural of leaves varied regarding the shoots collection and nutrient solution. The increasing of the Zn and B concentrations in the nutrient solution induced reduction of the total content of soluble carbohydrates non-structural of leaves. The adventitious rooting percentage was low, and the genotypes were considered difficult to propagation by mini-cuttings technique. The ministumps fertigated with nutrient solutions containing Zn and B (concentrations of 1.0 at 2.0 mg L-1) associated with the IBA application presented the greater adventitious rooting percentage. The IBA application in the concentration of 2,000 mg L-1 resulted in the greater speed of rooting and rooting percentage, and the interval of 35 to 42 days was the most suitable for the permanence of mini-cuttings rooted in a greenhouse. According to the histological analysis of rhizogenesis was verified that the adventitious root presented direct connection to the vascular cambium. The in vitro multiplication of axillary buds depends of the genetic material, culture medium and concentration of plant growth regulator and, the shoots elongation depends of the genetic material and plant growth regulator. The micropropagation protocol was efficient for the microplants production of Eucalyptus benthamii and can be used to form a clonal microgarden.