The data presented within this thesis shows the generation and characterisation of a complete-, macrophage/granulocyte- and T cell-specific IFNγR2 deficient mouse mutant. This mutant mouse is a valuable tool in dissecting the mechanism of action of the pleiotrophic cytokine IFNγ.The global mutant mouse was tested in three models in vivo - DSS induced colitis, Trichuris muris infection and EAE. The aim of the DSS-induced colitis model was to test the role of IFNγ in the innate immune system and, despite previous reports demonstrating IFNγ deficient mice are protected from DSS-colitis, our IFNγR2 deficient mice displayed equal or more severe colitis than control mice. We hypothesise that this discrepancy is due to differences in the gut microbiota.The Trichuris muris model was utilised as a method of examining the role of IFNγ in the adaptive immune system. The complete IFNγR2 mutant was resistant to a low dose T. muris infection; however, neither the T cell specific nor the macrophage/granulocyte specific mutant duplicated the resistant phenotype observed in the global knock-out mice. Analysis of a double conditional T cell and macrophage/granulocyte specific IFNγR2 mutant produced inconsistent results. Initial experiments suggested that, in combination, these deficiencies are sufficient to duplicate the resistant phenotype observed in the global mutant mice, but this was not reproducible.The final in vivo model that we used to analyse IFNγR2 mutant mice was EAE. This model was chosen as, for a long time, the mechanism of action and the involvement of IFNγ in EAE has been a matter of uncertainty. These results demonstrated that global IFNγR2 mutant mice demonstrate an atypical phenotype, with no signs of recovery. In contrast, control mice develop classical EAE symptoms with almost complete recovery prior to the termination of the experiment. The IFNγ receptor mutant mouse generated will be of great value to the scientific community as IFNγ has been demonstrated to play a role in multiple diseases and this tool allows the mechanism of action of this cytokine to be unravelled.

Cannabidiol (CBD), a non-psychotropic phytocannabinoid with structural similarity to Δ 9 -tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), is currently being investigated as a therapeutic for its immunosuppressive effects. One disease for which CBD is extensively researched is multiple sclerosis (MS), a demyelinating, autoimmune disorder, and its murine model counterpart, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). The focus of this dissertation aimed to analyze the transcriptomic brain pathways in EAE and its comparison to MS in addition to CBD’s immunosuppressive mechanisms in the innate and adaptive immune systems. Evidence presented here showed that transcriptomic signaling pathways in the EAE brain of mice with clinical symptoms were similar to the transcriptome of active lesions from MS patients. The transcriptomic analysis also presented two differentially expressed genes that were increased in CBD-treated, asymptomatic EAE mouse brains: oxytocin and vasopressin. Expression of these genes was also increased in naïve, CBD-treated mouse brains, which may indicate potential as efficacy biomarkers. Subsequently, as disease progression requires input from the innate and adaptive immune systems, the mechanisms of CBD were analyzed under naïve and stimulatory conditions in macrophages and splenocytes. In macrophages, CBD exerted an anti-inflammatory effect by dampening the M1 polarization phenotype, decreasing pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, reducing TNF-α through intracellular TACE retention, and diminishing the translocation of RelA to the nucleus. Notably, similar impact of CBD on TACE was evident in naïve macrophages, suggesting that CBD exerted an effect under naïve conditions. In splenocytes, CBD exhibited a long-term effect on the percentage of various immune populations during naïve and splenic T cell activation (with anti-CD3/anti-CD28) conditions but only provided temporary relief and short-term from TNF-α and IFN-γ cytokine secretion. CBD also increased early mRNA expression of Tnfa in CBD in stimulated splenocytes. In naïve splenocytes, CBD impacted key immune mediators discovered from a transcriptomic re-analysis of human neuroblastoma cells, including decreased early expression of Noxo1 but increased expression of Ctsb. In summary, this dissertation presented evidence that CBD impacts the immune system from the transcriptional level in the brain, the innate and adaptive immune systems at the cellular level, and the overall EAE disease phenotype.

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Die Multiple Sklerose (MS) ist die häufigste chronisch-entzündliche Erkrankung des zentralen Nervensystems und die häufigste Ursache erworbener Behinderung im jungen Erwachsenenalter. Histopathologisches Kennzeichen der MS sind fokale Läsionen, die durch Demyelinisierung, Entzündungsinfiltrat, gliale Narbenbildung, Astrozytose, Oligodendrozytenschädigung und unterschiedlich stark ausgeprägte Axondegeneration gekennzeichnet sind. Die Läsionen können im gesamten ZNS auftreten. Bei der Pathogenese der MS geht man von einem multifaktoriellen Geschehen aus. Nach dem derzeitigen Wissenstand ist die MS eine T-Zell-vermittelte Autoimmunerkrankung gegen bestimmte Bestandteile des zentralen Nervensystems, bei der zusätzlich genetische, epidemiologische und Umweltfaktoren eine Rolle spielen. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) haben wichtige Funktionen in der Genregulation und sind in viele physiologische Zellprozesse involviert. Man geht daher davon aus, dass miRNAs auch eine wichtige Rolle in der Pathogenese der MS spielen. Sowohl an MS-Patienten als auch im Tiermodell werden diesbezügliche Untersuchungen durchgeführt. Das wichtigste Tiermodell der MS ist die experimentelle autoimmune Enzephalomyelitis (EAE). In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde die miRNA-Regulation ausgewählter miRNAs in EAE-Läsionen von C57/BL6 Mäusen (MOG35-55-induziert) und Weißbüschelaffen (MOG1-125-induziert) im Gegensatz zu Kontrollgewebe ermittelt und mit der bekannten miRNA-Regulation in aktiven humanen MS-Läsionen verglichen. Aus den EAE-Rückenmarksläsionen der Mäuse und den makrosezierten EAE-Hirnläsionen der Weißbüschelaffen wurde zunächst die RNA extrahiert. Im Anschluss erfolgte die Umschreibung in eine cDNA und dann eine miRNA-Detektion und -Quantifizierung mit Hilfe einer qPCR. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass die miRNA-Regulation in den EAE-Läsionen von Mäusen und Weißbüschelaffen mit der miRNA-Hoch- und -Herabregulation in den aktiven humanen MS-Läsionen vergleichbar ist. Die im Menschen konservierten und regulierten miRNAs miR-155, miR-142-3p, miRNA-146a, miR-146b und miR-21 waren auch in Maus und Weißbüschelaffe in ähnlicher Weise hochreguliert.

Resultados obtidos pelo nosso grupo demonstraram, in vitro, que a PGE2 é capaz de modular a sobrevivência de linfócitos TCD4+ protegendo essas células da morte. Dentro do modelo de EAE, nossa hipótese é que a PGE2 liberada pelas APCs, durante a fase de indução, module a sobrevivência de linfócitos autorreativos específicos induzindo a doença. Realizamos o tratamento de camundongos submetidos à EAE com indometacina durante 5 dias e notamos que houve redução da EAE associada à redução de linfócitos produtores de IFN-γ, IL-17 e GM-CSF, e macrófagos infiltrantes e microglias ativadas, no SNC. O tratamento alterou a freqüência de células em proliferação e a frequência de células produtoras de IFN-γ e IL-17 na periferia e a concentração dessas citocinas. Esses resultados sugerem que a indometacina reduz o desenvolvimento da EAE e sua resposta antígeno-específica demonstrando a sua importância na modulação das respostas de linfócitos T na autoimunidade. / Results obtained by our group demonstrated in vitro that PGE2 is able to modulate CD4+ T cells survival protecting these cells from death. Within the EAE model, we hypothesized that PGE2 released by APCs during the induction phase, modulate survival of autoreactive specific lymphocytes by induction the disease. We carried out the treatment of EAE in mice subjected to indomethacin for 5 days and noticed that there is reduction of EAE associated with decreased IFN-γ, IL-17 and GM-CSF producing T cells, and infiltrating macrophages and activated microglia in the CNS. The results suggest that indomethacin reduces EAE and its antigen-specif response demonstrating their importance in the modulation of T lymphocyte responses in autoimmunity.

Os macrófagos são células fagocíticas derivadas dos monócitos sanguíneos produzidos pela medula óssea e estão diretamente envolvidos em um conjunto de processos biológicos vitais. Durante o repasto sanguíneo, fêmeas do mosquito Aedes aegypti inoculam saliva na pele de seu hospedeiro vertebrado e, devido sua localização estratégica nos tecidos, os macrófagos estão dentre as primeiras células residentes a ser exposta a saliva. Apesar dessa evidência fisiológica, pouco se sabe sobre os efeitos imunomoduladores da saliva desse mosquito sobre os macrófagos. Assim, o objetivo deste projeto foi avaliar o papel dos componentes salivares de A. aegypti em macrófagos murinos ativados por LPS+IFN-γ e o potencial efeito de uma proteína salivar no desenvolvimento da encefalomielite autoimune experimental (EAE), um modelo experimental para estudo da esclerose múltipla. Em conclusão, o EGS de A. aegypti apresenta efeito imunomodulatório sobre macrófagos peritoneais ativados com LPS e IFN-γ. Além disso, nossos resultados sugerem que a proteína identificada com possível inibidor da IL-6 produzida por macrófagos ativados pode ser capaz de diminuir a polarização de respostas Th1 e Th17, afetando assim o desenvolvimento da EAE. / Macrophages are phagocytic cells derived from blood monocytes produced by the bone marrow and are directly engaged in a set of vital biological processes. During blood feeding, Aedes aegypti female mosquitoes inoculate saliva into the skin of their vertebrate hosts and, due to its strategic location in the tissues, macrophages are possibly among the first resident cells to be exposed to saliva. Despite this physiological evidence, little is known about the immunomodulatory effects of this mosquitos saliva on macrophages. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the role of A. aegypti salivary components in LPS/IFN-γ-activated murine macrophages and the potential effect of a salivary protein on the development of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), an experimental model for multiple sclerosis studies. In conclusion, A. aegypti SGE presents immunomodulatory effect on peritoneal macrophages activated by LPS/IFN-γ. Furthermore, our results suggest that the protein identified as a putative inhibitor of IL-6 produced by activated macrophages may be able to down modulate the polarization of Th1 and Th17 responses, thus affecting the development of EAE.

As células T exercem papel crucial nas respostas imunes adaptativas e em doenças autoimunes, como a esclerose múltipla. O glutamato, neurotransmissor mais abundante no SNC, age por meio de duas famílias de receptores: metabotrópico e ionotrópico. As células T são alvo do glutamato durante a ativação e apresentação de antígenos, pois está presente nas sinapses imunológicas, porém, pouco se sabe a respeito de seu papel na função das células T. Nós estudamos o papel do NMDAR nas respostas mediadas por células T. In vitro, o uso do antagonista MK801 reduziu a linfoproliferação e a síntese de IFN-γ e IL-17A, bem com o NMDA reduziu a proliferação e produção de IFN-γ e IL-17A. In vivo, o MK801 reduziu a gravidade da EAE, resultado da menor infiltração de linfócitos Th1 e Th17 no SNC. Além disso, o MK801 reduziu a expressão de Rorc, Il17a, Stat4, Ccr4, Ccr6 e Ifna2 no SNC. Em suma, esses dados confirmam que o NMDAR exerce papel nas funções mediadas por células T, indicando que as células T são alvos do excesso do glutamato via NMDAR em doenças neuroinflamatórias. / T cells play a crucial role in adaptive immune responses and autoimmune diseases, such as multiple sclerosis. Glutamate is the most abundant neurotransmitter in the CNS, and it acts through two receptor families: metabotropic and ionotropic. T cells are target of glutamate during activation and antigen presentation, because glutamate is also present in the immunological synapses, however, little is known about its role on T cell functions. We investigated the role of NMDAR in immune-mediated T cell responses. In vitro, the use of the antagonist MK801 reduced T cell proliferation and cytokine production (IFN-γ e IL-17A), as well as NMDA reduced lymphocyte proliferation and IFN-γ e IL-17A production, in a dose dependent manner. In vivo, MK801 diminished severity of EAE, result of the minor Th1 and Th17 infiltration in the CNS. In addition, MK801 reduced Rorc, Il17a, Stat4, Ccr4, Ccr6 and Ifna2 expression in the CNS. In short, our data confirm that the NMDAR play a role in T cell-mediated functions, indicating that T cells are target of glutamate excess via NMDAR in neuroinflammatory diseases.