Neste trabalho crescemos monocristais de Bi12SiO20 (BSO) e de Bi12TiO20 (BTO). Os cristais de BSO foram crescidos pela técnica de Czochralski a partir da fase líquida com composição molar 6Bi2O3:1SiO2. Os melhores resultados foram obtidos para taxas de puxamento entre 1 e 2,5mm/h, a velocidade de rotação foi mantida constante em 20rpm. Os cristais de BTO foram crescidos pelo método top-seeded solution Growth (TSSG) a partir da composição molar 10Bi2O3:1SiO2, com taxas de puxamento menores que 0,3mm/h e velocidade de rotação entre 16 e 30 rpm. A qualidade dos cristais foi avaliada utilizando microscopia óptica e eletrônica, corrosão seletiva e raios-x. Por microscopia óptica identificamos os defeitos macroscópicos e discutimos sua natureza e possíveis causas. Utilizando a técnica de ataque químico seletivo, analisamos a morfologia das figuras de ataque e estimamos a densidade de deslocações. Visando identificar defeitos de estequiometria, fizemos medidas de composição por microanálise eletrônica. Para a caracterização cristalográfica, calculamos o parâmetro de rede por difração de raios-x usando o método do pó e confirmamos a estrutura cristalográfica através do método de Rietveld. E, ainda, medimos a atividade óptica que é uma constante característica dos cristais. / In this work we grew Bi12SiO20 (BSO) and Bi12TiO20 single crystals. The BSO crystals have been grown from the melt composition of 6Bi2O3:1SiO2 by the Czochralski method. The best results were obtained at pulling rates from 1 to 2.5m/h, the rotation rate of 20rpm was constant. The BTO crystals have been grown by the top-seeded solution growth technique from a 10Bi2O3:1SiO2 solution with pulling rates less than 0.3mm/h and rotation rates from 16 to 30rpm. The crystal quality was examined by optical and scanning electron microscopy, selective etching, and x-ray diffraction. We identified the macroscopic defects by optical microscopy and discussed their nature and probable origin. Using selective etching, we analyzed the etching pits morphology and evaluated the dislocation density. To identify stoichiometric defects, composition measurements by electron probe microanalysis were made. To obtain crystallographic characterization, we calculated the cell parameter by powder method x-ray diffraction and used the Rietveld method to verify the crystallographic structure. And, also, we measured the optical activity, a constant of the crystals.

Neste trabalho foram realizados a síntese, o crescimento e a caracterização de cristais de Bi 12Ti1-xGaxO20 (BTGaO) para avaliar suas potencialidades tecnológicas em dispositivos do estado sólido, especificamente para registros holográficos. Através da síntese do estado sólido, foi possível determinar um limite máximo de 20% utilizando uma forma estequiométrica de substituição. Considerando a não-estequiometria do sistema Bi2O3:Ga2O3 obtivemos soluções sólidas completas. Os cristais de B12Ti1-xGaxO20 (BTGaO)foram obtidos pelo método de TSSG (Top Seed Solution Growth), utilizando como solvente excesso de Bi2O3 . Cristais de boa qualidade óptica e estrutural foram crescidos utilizando-se taxas de puxamento de 0,2 0,3 mm/h e rotação de 5- 30 rpm . Das medidas de composição dos cristais realizadas por microssonda (EDS) foi possível determinarmos o coeficiente de segregação efetivo do Ga em Bi12TiO20 como sendo maior do que um. Por meio de análise térmica diferencial (DTA) foi possível verificar que a temperatura de fusão diminui de acordo com os diferentes níveis de substituição. Verificamos que a introdução do Ga na matriz de BTO aumenta a atividade óptica (BTO puro de 6.4°/mm; BTGaO-30% de substituição de 9.8°/mm) e para o BGaO nominalmente puro encontramos um valor da ordem de 150% maior (15.9°/mm). A corrente no escuro aumentou em quatro ordens de grandeza (ID=10-9 A) em relação àquela presente nos cristais de BTO nominalmente puro (ID=10-13 A) enquanto nenhuma fotocorrente foi detectada. O coeficiente de absorção óptica diminuiu em todo espectro visível e o coeficiente eletroóptico não apresentou variação significativa (5,20pm/V para o BTO e 5,4 - 5,6pm/V para os cristais de BTGaO). A análise das propriedades ópticas indicam que os cristais de Bi12Ti1-xGaxO20 são inadequados para registros holográfico no vermelho. Porém sua maior transparência na região do espectro visível pode qualificá-lo como um novo meio para dispositivos optoeletrônicos / In this work the synthesis, the growth and crystal characterization of Bi 12Ti1-xGaxO20 (BTGaO) have been carried out to evaluate its technological potentialities in solid state devices, specifically for holographic recorders. Through the synthesis of the solid state, it was possible to determine a maximum limit of 20% using an stoichioinetric form of substitution. Considering the non-stoichiometry of the Bi2O3:Ga203 system we got full solid solutions. The crystals of BTGaO have been gotten by the TSSG method (Top Seed Solution Growth), using as solvent excess of BiO3. Crystals with good optic and structural quality have been grown using pulling rates of 0.2-0.3 mm/h and rotation of 5-30rpm. From the measures of composition through microprobe(EDS) in crystals, it was possible to determine the effective coefficient of segregation of Ga in Bi12TiO20 as being bigger than one. By means of differential thermal analysis (DTA), it was possible to verify that the melting temperature diminishes in accordance with the different leveis of substitution. We verify the introduction of Ga in the host of BTO increases the optical activity (in pure BTO = 6.4°/mm; 9.8°/mm 30% of substitution) and for nominally pure BGaO vve find a value 150% higher (15.9°/mm). The dark current increase in four orders of magnitude (ID=10-9 A) in relation to crystals of pure BTO (ID=10-13 A) while not any photocurrent was detected. The optical absorption coefficient diminishes in ali visible spectrum. The electrooptical coefficient did not present significant variation (5.20pm/V for BTO and 5.4-5.6pm/V for crystals of BTGaO). The analysis of the optical properties indicates that the crystals of Bi12Ti1-xGaxO20 are inadequate for holographic recorders. However its bigger transparency in the region of the visible specter can chancterize it as new medium for optoeletronical devices

Neste trabalho foram realizados a síntese, o crescimento e a caracterização de cristais de Bi 12Ti1-xGaxO20 (BTGaO) para avaliar suas potencialidades tecnológicas em dispositivos do estado sólido, especificamente para registros holográficos. Através da síntese do estado sólido, foi possível determinar um limite máximo de 20% utilizando uma forma estequiométrica de substituição. Considerando a não-estequiometria do sistema Bi2O3:Ga2O3 obtivemos soluções sólidas completas. Os cristais de B12Ti1-xGaxO20 (BTGaO)foram obtidos pelo método de TSSG (Top Seed Solution Growth), utilizando como solvente excesso de Bi2O3 . Cristais de boa qualidade óptica e estrutural foram crescidos utilizando-se taxas de puxamento de 0,2 0,3 mm/h e rotação de 5- 30 rpm . Das medidas de composição dos cristais realizadas por microssonda (EDS) foi possível determinarmos o coeficiente de segregação efetivo do Ga em Bi12TiO20 como sendo maior do que um. Por meio de análise térmica diferencial (DTA) foi possível verificar que a temperatura de fusão diminui de acordo com os diferentes níveis de substituição. Verificamos que a introdução do Ga na matriz de BTO aumenta a atividade óptica (BTO puro de 6.4°/mm; BTGaO-30% de substituição de 9.8°/mm) e para o BGaO nominalmente puro encontramos um valor da ordem de 150% maior (15.9°/mm). A corrente no escuro aumentou em quatro ordens de grandeza (ID=10-9 A) em relação àquela presente nos cristais de BTO nominalmente puro (ID=10-13 A) enquanto nenhuma fotocorrente foi detectada. O coeficiente de absorção óptica diminuiu em todo espectro visível e o coeficiente eletroóptico não apresentou variação significativa (5,20pm/V para o BTO e 5,4 - 5,6pm/V para os cristais de BTGaO). A análise das propriedades ópticas indicam que os cristais de Bi12Ti1-xGaxO20 são inadequados para registros holográfico no vermelho. Porém sua maior transparência na região do espectro visível pode qualificá-lo como um novo meio para dispositivos optoeletrônicos / In this work the synthesis, the growth and crystal characterization of Bi 12Ti1-xGaxO20 (BTGaO) have been carried out to evaluate its technological potentialities in solid state devices, specifically for holographic recorders. Through the synthesis of the solid state, it was possible to determine a maximum limit of 20% using an stoichioinetric form of substitution. Considering the non-stoichiometry of the Bi2O3:Ga203 system we got full solid solutions. The crystals of BTGaO have been gotten by the TSSG method (Top Seed Solution Growth), using as solvent excess of BiO3. Crystals with good optic and structural quality have been grown using pulling rates of 0.2-0.3 mm/h and rotation of 5-30rpm. From the measures of composition through microprobe(EDS) in crystals, it was possible to determine the effective coefficient of segregation of Ga in Bi12TiO20 as being bigger than one. By means of differential thermal analysis (DTA), it was possible to verify that the melting temperature diminishes in accordance with the different leveis of substitution. We verify the introduction of Ga in the host of BTO increases the optical activity (in pure BTO = 6.4°/mm; 9.8°/mm 30% of substitution) and for nominally pure BGaO vve find a value 150% higher (15.9°/mm). The dark current increase in four orders of magnitude (ID=10-9 A) in relation to crystals of pure BTO (ID=10-13 A) while not any photocurrent was detected. The optical absorption coefficient diminishes in ali visible spectrum. The electrooptical coefficient did not present significant variation (5.20pm/V for BTO and 5.4-5.6pm/V for crystals of BTGaO). The analysis of the optical properties indicates that the crystals of Bi12Ti1-xGaxO20 are inadequate for holographic recorders. However its bigger transparency in the region of the visible specter can chancterize it as new medium for optoeletronical devices

Neste trabalho crescemos monocristais de Bi12SiO20 (BSO) e de Bi12TiO20 (BTO). Os cristais de BSO foram crescidos pela técnica de Czochralski a partir da fase líquida com composição molar 6Bi2O3:1SiO2. Os melhores resultados foram obtidos para taxas de puxamento entre 1 e 2,5mm/h, a velocidade de rotação foi mantida constante em 20rpm. Os cristais de BTO foram crescidos pelo método top-seeded solution Growth (TSSG) a partir da composição molar 10Bi2O3:1SiO2, com taxas de puxamento menores que 0,3mm/h e velocidade de rotação entre 16 e 30 rpm. A qualidade dos cristais foi avaliada utilizando microscopia óptica e eletrônica, corrosão seletiva e raios-x. Por microscopia óptica identificamos os defeitos macroscópicos e discutimos sua natureza e possíveis causas. Utilizando a técnica de ataque químico seletivo, analisamos a morfologia das figuras de ataque e estimamos a densidade de deslocações. Visando identificar defeitos de estequiometria, fizemos medidas de composição por microanálise eletrônica. Para a caracterização cristalográfica, calculamos o parâmetro de rede por difração de raios-x usando o método do pó e confirmamos a estrutura cristalográfica através do método de Rietveld. E, ainda, medimos a atividade óptica que é uma constante característica dos cristais. / In this work we grew Bi12SiO20 (BSO) and Bi12TiO20 single crystals. The BSO crystals have been grown from the melt composition of 6Bi2O3:1SiO2 by the Czochralski method. The best results were obtained at pulling rates from 1 to 2.5m/h, the rotation rate of 20rpm was constant. The BTO crystals have been grown by the top-seeded solution growth technique from a 10Bi2O3:1SiO2 solution with pulling rates less than 0.3mm/h and rotation rates from 16 to 30rpm. The crystal quality was examined by optical and scanning electron microscopy, selective etching, and x-ray diffraction. We identified the macroscopic defects by optical microscopy and discussed their nature and probable origin. Using selective etching, we analyzed the etching pits morphology and evaluated the dislocation density. To identify stoichiometric defects, composition measurements by electron probe microanalysis were made. To obtain crystallographic characterization, we calculated the cell parameter by powder method x-ray diffraction and used the Rietveld method to verify the crystallographic structure. And, also, we measured the optical activity, a constant of the crystals.

In this study, the electrical properties of [Al/(Bi4Ti3O12+V2O5 ) /Ba(Zr0.1Ti0.9)O3/Silicon¡AMFIS ]structure using annealed-BZT films would be improved for the nonvolatile FeRAM device applications. The radio-frequency magnetron sputtering was used to deposit BTV ferroelectric films on Mo/Ti/SiO2/Si and BZT/Si substrates, respectively, and MFMIS and MFIS structures would also be fabricated. The various sputtering parameter effects of BTV films such as the oxygen concentrations, rf power and deposition time would be discussed. Besides, the electrical and physical properties of as-deposited BZT films for (BTV/BZT/Si¡AMFIS) structure would be improved by different rapidly thermal annealing temperature. The physical characteristics of BTV films and annealed-BZT films for various sputtering parameters were obtained from the XRD pattern and SEM morphology. Besides, the memory window, dielectric constant and leakage current of MFM and MFIS structure using BTV films and annealed-BZT films would be found from the HP4284A, RT66A and HP4156C. From the experimental result obtained, the maximum dielectric constant of BTV films for 40 % oxygen concentration and 130W power were 10.79. The leakage current density was about 10-5A/cm2, as the applied electrical field of 200 kV/cm. In addition, the coercive field (Ec) and remanent polarization (2Pr) were 750 kV/cm and 12 £gC/cm2 from the P-E curves, respectively. Finally, the maximum memory window and lower leakage current density of [Al/(Bi4Ti3O12+V2O5) /Ba(Zr0.1Ti0.9)O3/Silicon¡AMFIS) structure would be found and they were 25V and 10-8A/cm2, respectively.

電腦資訊產業在1997年左右，受到DELL以嶄新的商業模式與運籌模式的影響以及產業環境的變化之下，過去採取間接行銷通路以及預測式生產(Build to Forecaster, BTF)的各大電腦公司紛紛開始設法朝向直接行銷通路以及接單後生產╱組裝 (Build to Order, BTO╱Configuration to Order, CTO) 的製造模式。但近年來在實務界中發現，我國專為國際品牌電腦大廠代工生產電腦的電腦廠商，越來越多的生產線逐漸開始採用過去的預測式生產的製造模式，而非前些年不斷被倡導的BTO╱CTO。如此的情勢發展，似乎意味著整個產業環境出現了一些變化，使得過去電腦大廠紛紛相繼採用BTO╱CTO的局勢已然不再，取而代之的是傳統的BTF逐漸增加。 為探討近年來廠商在製造模式上的轉變因素，本研究採用個案研究法，以Compaq、DELL、HP與IBM四家國際品牌大廠作為研究對象，進行個案描述、分析與比較，並根據近年來產業環境的變化，從中推敲廠商改變製造模式的關鍵因素。 研究結果發現，零組件價格波動的劇烈程度對於廠商決定製造模式具有關鍵性的影響，當價格跌價的幅度越大，時間越短，廠商越有誘因採用BTO與CTO的製造模式。此外，本研究更進一步推論，當零組件每月價格波動小於CTO所額外增加的製造與運籌成本時，廠商會採用BTO或BTF方式生產。 / By the effects of DELL’s new business model, process model and the industrial change, the traditional copmuter like IBM, Compaq who use indirect marketing channel and BTF, had changed around 1997. They tried to implement the BTO / CTO, furthermore, the direct marketing channel. But in the recent years, we found that more and more production lines, owned by OEM/ODM companies in Taiwan, adopted BTF rather than the BTO or CTO. It implies that something has changed, so the used BTO/CTO is not as popular as before. In order to dicuss why the corporates change their manuacturing models, case study was used by this research. By collecting and analyzing the recent developments of Compaq, DELL, HP, IBM and the industrial change, the research tried to find out the key factors that influence the corporates’ decision in manufacturing model. The research found when the key components’ price falled dramastically, corporate prefer implemeting BTO/CTO. Moreover, the research conclude that when component’s price reduction is less than CTO’s added manufacturing and logistical cost, corporate will adopt BTO or BTF.

筆記型電腦由於本身產品的生命週期短，技術淘汰率高、製程組裝不易、市場反應快速、原料價值變動大以及競爭性高的特性，客製化生產CTO (Configure To Order)生產模式成為筆記型電腦廠商的核心競爭能力，關係著未來的競爭優勢，因此我國各大筆記型電腦生產廠商莫不積極開發建立CTO生產模式。 　　研究者作為國內電子業廠商推動CTO工作的實務工作者，以1999年突破接單內兩天生產挑戰的個案公司為個案，在遵守商業倫理的必要限制下，以個人實際開創CTO生產流程之實務經驗敘述為主，撰寫研究報告，探討筆記型電腦產業CTO的生產流程作業，分析關鍵因素，據以提出生產管理與控制CTO的運作模式與建議，提供相關產業參考。 　　本研究主要研究目的分述如下： 　　　一、CTO生產模式之意義、功能與限制。 　　　二、探究CTO生產模式各流程之主要內涵。 　　　三、就個案公司實例分析CTO生產模式之關鍵因素。 　　　四、就個案公司之經驗，探討CTO生產模式台灣經驗移植至大陸的可行性與限制，提供建議與我國資訊產業實施參考。 　　討論部分，研究者針對政府ABCDE計畫對CTO生產模式的影響、OEM大廠對BTO/CTO的要求、CTO生產模式的構建成本與其所帶來附加價值以及CTO生產模式的應用範圍與移植大陸的可行性，做了詳盡的論述。最後研究者分別針對相關產業以及後續研究者提出建議，以供參考。 / Notebook computer is a short life, high technology, difficult assembly, fast marketing change, fluctuated material pricing and highly competed product. CTO (Configure To Order) manufacturing capability becomes Notebook PC manufacturers' core competence. All Taiwan Notebook PC manufacturers aggressively make a lot of efforts to build up CTO process capability. 　　The researcher has CTO process establishment experience. The established CTO process has achieved 2 days delivery after receipt of the orders. The researcher is willing to share his CTO process experience with public under business morality constraint. The analysis includes CTO process flow, the key success elements, CTO operation model and production control for associated industry's reference. 　　The purpose for this search is as follows: 　　　1). The meaning, function and limitation of CTO process. 　　　2). CTO process flow content 　　　3). CTO process key success elements 　　　4). The feasibility and constraint to transfer CTO process to China 　　With regard to the discussion that covers several areas: 1) How did government “ABCDE” project affect CTO process? 2) Major OEM customers' such as Compaq & Dell requirement in terms of BTO/CTO process, 3) The cost to build up CTO process and the added value CTO process may generate, 4) The suitable products to use CTO process and the feasibility to transfer CTO process to China. At last, the researcher made some suggestion to the associated industry and the follow-up researchers.

The photorefractive crystals of the sillenite family are very interesting because their large potentiality of applications in devices development, such as non‐destructive interferometer tests. Among the crystals of this family, the Bi12TiO20 (BTO) is more attractive because their relatively fast response time and the lower optical activity, being promising for application in real time image processing. The effective electro‐optic coefficient ( reff ) is a parameter too important for application of the BTO. The wavelength dispersion of this coefficient in the visible spectrum has attracted some discussion in the literature. Another important parameter is the electric screening field coefficient (ξ ). This parameter is necessary to take into account the material response to the applied electric field. Because the material is photoconductor and due to nonuniform illumination, the material responds creating an electric field, called screening field ( E scr ), that is opposed to the applied ones. In this work, we present an alternative procedure to determine ef r and ξ by measuring the optical intensity variation induced by an applied electric field ( E App ), which is transmitted through an undoped photorefractive 12 20 Bi TiO (BTO) crystal in an oblique incidence setup. The transmitted intensity variation (TIV) was modeled taking into account the transmission coefficients for the polarization plane parallel and perpendicular to the incidence plane, as well as the birefringence induced by the E App, which changes the components of the polarization vector of the light beam. The measurements were performed with infrared radiation at 780 nm and provided 5.5 0.2 pm/V reff = ± . It allowed us to conclude, with support of results from the literature, that the region without dispersion of the electro‐optic coefficient in the BTO crystal ranges from 510 nm to at least 780 nm. The results point to the existence of an intensity threshold inside the crystal to create a significant E scr. The procedure proposed here can be used for distinct wavelengths and seems to be suitable for other electrically induced birefringent materials. / Os cristais fotorrefrativos da família das silenitas são de grande interesse tecnológico devido as suas grandes potencialidades de aplicações no desenvolvimento de dispositivos, como em testes interferométricos não‐destrutivos. Dentro dessa família, o Bi12TiO20 (BTO) se destaca por apresentar tempo de resposta relativamente curto e a menor atividade óptica, sendo promissores para aplicação no processamento de imagens em tempo real. Um parâmetro muito importante para aplicação do BTO é o coeficiente eletro‐óptico efetivo ( ref ). A dispersão desse coeficiente na região visível do espectro tem atraído discussão considerável. Outro parâmetro importante é o coeficiente de blindagem do campo elétrico aplicado (ξ ). Esse parâmetro surge devido à resposta do meio a aplicação de campo elétrico. Pelo fato do material ser fotocondutor, o meio responde criando um campo elétrico interno, chamado de campo elétrico de blindagem (E scr), por conta da não‐uniformidade na iluminação e contatos elétricos. Neste trabalho, propomos um procedimento alternativo para a determinação de ref e ξ . A determinação desses parâmetros é realizada medindo a variação da intensidade transmitida (VIT) do feixe óptico pelo cristal em incidência oblíqua. Esta variação é provocada pelo campo elétrico aplicado (E Ap) e se deve a birrefringência induzida no cristal que muda as componentes do vetor polarização do feixe. A VIT foi modelada levando em conta os coeficientes de transmissão para polarização paralela e perpendicular ao plano de incidência, que no caso de incidência oblíqua são diferentes, como também a birrefringência induzida no cristal por E Ap. Foi investigado um cristal BTO e as medidas foram realizadas em 780 nm. O valor obtido para ref foi 5,5±0,2 pm/V o que nos permitiu concluir, com suporte de resultados da literatura, que a região a qual ef r não apresenta dispersão para os cristais BTO é de 510 nm até pelo menos 780 nm. Verificamos que o parâmetro ξ é dependente da intensidade do feixe incidente, do ângulo de incidência e do ângulo de polarização. Os resultados obtidos indicam a existência de um limiar de intensidade dentro do cristal para a criação de E scr significante. Apesar das medidas terem sido realizadas em apenas um cristal e um comprimento de onda, o procedimento proposto pode ser utilizado em outros comprimentos de onda e outros meios onde a birrefringência é induzida por E Ap.

Avec le développement des circuits intégrés à très faible consommation d'énergie, la nécessité de réduire les coûts d'exploitation des dispositifs électroniques embarqués et l'utilisation des piles usagées constituant une menace pour l'environnement, le concept de récupération d'énergie a acquis un nouvel intérêt. La récupération d'énergie couvre le piégeage de nombreuses sources d'énergie ambiantes perdues et leur conversion en énergie électrique. Une large gamme de dispositifs de récupération d'énergie des vibrations mécaniques a été développée. Une configuration commune consiste en un système de masse-ressort avec un matériau piézoélectrique en parallèle avec le ressort pour convertir une partie de l'énergie mécanique pendant les oscillations en énergie électrique. Jusqu'à présent, le matériau le plus utilisé pour la récupération d'énergie piézoélectrique est le titano-zirconate de plomb (PbZr1-xTixO3) (PZT). Le PZT est le matériau de référence pour les applications microsystème électromécanique-MEMS (MechanoElectroMechanicalSystems) dans le domaine de la récupération d'énergie. Les matériaux piézoélectriques à base de plomb tels que le PZT et niobate-titanate de plomb-magnésium (PMN-PT) offrent des facteurs de couplage piézoélectriques supérieurs à ceux d'autres matériaux. Cependant, malgré ses excellentes propriétés électriques (diélectriques, ferroélectriques et piézoélectriques), le PZT et d'autres matériaux à base de plomb devraient bientôt être remplacés par des composés sans plomb, à cause des problèmes environnementaux. Notre travail vise à développer des matériaux sans plomb de haute performance pour la récupération d'énergie par vibration mécanique. Nous nous sommes intéressés à la fabrication et la caractérisation des dispositifs MEMS pour la récupération d'énergie en utilisant les matériaux piézoélectriques sans plomb tels que le nitrure d'aluminium (AIN), le titanate de baryum BaTiO3 (BTO) et la ferrite de bismuth BiFeO3 (BFO). Les matériaux piézoélectriques PZT (utilisé comme référence à cause ses coefficients piézoélectriques élevés), BTO, BFO et AIN ont été déposés en utilisant des méthodes de dépôt telles que la pulvérisation cathodique et le dépôt sol-gel, conduisant à des films minces à grande échelle, homogènes et de haute densité, avec une épaisseur contrôlée avec précision. Le dépôt de films de 300 nm d'épaisseur par pulvérisation cathodique ou par Sol-Gel a été réalisé sur du substrat de SrTiO3 (STO) recouvert d'une électrode inférieure de SrRuO3 (SRO), qui est le substrat de référence pour les oxydes fonctionnels (PZT, BTO et BFO), et sur un substrat de silicium recouvert de platine, qui est le modèle industriel classique. Quels que soient les matériaux piézoélectriques, nous avons obtenu des films épitaxiés sur substrat de STO et texturés sur substrat de silicium. Des mesures structurales, électriques et piézoélectriques sur les films de BTO, AIN et PZT montrent qu'ils ont de bonnes propriétés physiques en accord avec la littérature. / With the development of ultra-low-power integrated circuits, the need to reduce operating costs for embedded electronic devices, and since used batteries pose a threat to the environment, the concept of energy harvesting has gained a new relevance. Energy harvesting covers the scavenging of many lost ambient energy sources and their conversion into electrical energy. A broad range of energy harvesting devices has been developed to scavenge energy from mechanical vibrations. A common configuration consists of a spring-mass system with a piezoelectric material in parallel with the spring to convert some of the mechanical energy during oscillations into electrical power. So far the most used material for piezoelectric energy harvesting is the Lead Zirconate Titanate (PbZr1-xTixO3) (PZT). PZT is the reference material for MEMS (MechanoElectroMechanicalSystems) applications in the field of energy harvesting. Lead-based piezoelectric materials such as PZT and lead magnesium niobate-lead titanate (PMN-PT) offer incomparable piezoelectric coupling factors to other materials. However, despite its excellent electrical properties (dielectric, ferroelectric and piezoelectric), PZT and other Lead based materials should be replaced shortly by leadfree compounds, due to environmental issues. Our work aims at developing lead-free high performance vibration energy-harvesting. We focus on the fabrication and characterization of aluminum nitride (AlN), Barium titanate BaTiO3 (BTO) and Bismuth ferrite BiFeO3 (BFO) devices for energy harvesting. PZT (as a reference because it’s high piezoelectric coefficients), BTO, BFO and AlN have been deposited using sputtering methods, leading to high homogeneous, large scale thin films with a precisely controlled thickness. The deposition of 300nm-thick films by sputtering or spin coating was performed on SrTiO3 (STO) substrate with SrRuO3 (SRO) bottom electrode, which is the reference substrate for the functional oxides (PZT, BTO and BFO), and platinum coated silicon substrate, which is the classic industrial template. Whatever the piezoelectric materials, we obtained epitaxial films on STO substrate and textured films on silicon substrate. Structural, electrical and piezoelectric measurements on the BTO, AlN and PZT films show that they have good physical properties in agreement with the literature.

Near-field optical microscopy allows the nondestructive examination of surfaces with a spatial resolution far below the diffraction limit of Abbe. In fact, the resolution of this kind of microscope is not at all dependent on the wavelength, but is typically in the range of 10 to 100 nanometers. On this scale, many materials are anisotropic, even though they might appear isotropic on the macroscopic length scale. In the present work, the previously never studied interaction between a scattering-type near-field probe and an anisotropic sample is examined theoretically as well as experimentally. In the theoretical part of the work, the analytical dipole model, which is well known for isotropic samples, is extended to anisotropic samples. On isotropic samples one observes an optical contrast between different materials, whereas on anisotropic samples one expects an additional contrast between areas with different orientations of the same dielectric tensor. The calculations show that this anisotropy contrast is strong enough to be observed if the sample is excited close to a polariton resonance. The experimental setup allows the optical examination in the visible and in the infrared wavelength regimes. For the latter, a free-electron laser was used as a precisely tunable light source for resonant excitation. The basic atomic force microscope provides a unique combination of different scanning probe microscopy methods that are indispensable in order to avoid artifacts in the measurement of the near-field signal and the resulting anisotropy contrast. Basic studies of the anisotropy contrast were performed on the ferroelectric single crystals barium titanate and lithium niobate. On lithium niobate, we examined the spectral dependence of the near-field signal close to the phonon resonance of the sample as well as its dependence on the tip-sample distance, the polarization of the incident light, and the orientation of the sample. On barium titanate, analogous measurements were performed and, additionally, areas with different types of domains were imaged and the near-field optical contrast due to the anisotropy of the sample was directly measured. The experimental results of the work agree with the theoretical predictions. A near-field optical contrast due to the anisotropy of the sample can be measured and allows areas with different orientations of the dielectric tensor to be distinguished optically. The contrast results from variations of the dielectric tensor components both parallel and perpendicular to the sample surface. The presented method allows the optical examination of anisotropies of a sample with ultrahigh resolution, and promises applications in many fields of research, such as materials science, information technology, biology, and nanooptics. / Die optische Nahfeldmikroskopie ermöglicht die zerstörungsfreie optische Unter- suchung von Oberflächen mit einer räumlichen Auflösung weit unterhalb des klas- sischen Beugungslimits von Abbe. Die Auflösung dieser Art von Mikroskopie ist unabhängig von der verwendeten Wellenlänge und liegt typischerweise im Bereich von 10-100 Nanometern. Auf dieser Längenskala zeigen viele Materialien optisch anisotropes Verhalten, auch wenn sie makroskopisch isotrop erscheinen. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird die bisher noch nicht bestimmte Wechselwirkung einer streuenden Nahfeldsonde mit einer anisotropen Probe sowohl theoretisch als auch experimentell untersucht. Im theoretischen Teil wird das für isotrope Proben bekannte analytische Dipol- modell auf anisotrope Materialien erweitert. Während fÄur isotrope Proben ein reiner Materialkontrast beobachtet wird, ist auf anisotropen Proben zusätzlich ein Kontrast zwischen Bereichen mit unterschiedlicher Orientierung des Dielektrizitätstensors zu erwarten. Die Berechnungen zeigen, dass dieser Anisotropiekontrast messbar ist, wenn die Probe nahe einer Polaritonresonanz angeregt wird. Der verwendete experimentelle Aufbau ermöglicht die optische Untersuchung von Materialien im sichtbaren sowie im infraroten Wellenlängenbereich, wobei zur re- sonanten Anregung ein Freie-Elektronen-Laser verwendet wurde. Das dem Nahfeld- mikroskop zugrunde liegende Rasterkraftmikroskop bietet eine einzigartige Kombi- nation verschiedener Rastersondenmikroskopie-Methoden und ermöglicht neben der Untersuchung von komplementären Probeneigenschaften auch die Unterdrückung von mechanisch und elektrisch induzierten Fehlkontrasten im optischen Signal. An den ferroelektrischen Einkristallen Lithiumniobat und Bariumtitanat wurde der anisotrope Nahfeldkontrast im infraroten WellenlÄangenbereich untersucht. An eindomÄanigem Lithiumniobat wurden das spektrale Verhalten des Nahfeldsignals sowie dessen charakteristische Abhängigkeit von Polarisation, Abstand und Proben- orientierung grundlegend untersucht. Auf Bariumtitanat, einem mehrdomänigen Kristall, wurden analoge Messungen durchgeführt und zusätzlich Gebiete mit ver- schiedenen Domänensorten abgebildet, wobei ein direkter nachfeldoptischer Kon- trast aufgrund der Anisotropie der Probe nachgewiesen werden konnte. Die experimentellen Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit stimmen mit den theoretischen Vorhersagen überein. Ein durch die optische Anisotropie der Probe induzierter Nahfeldkontrast ist messbar und erlaubt die optische Unterscheidung von Gebie- ten mit unterschiedlicher Orientierung des Dielektriziätstensors, wobei eine Än- derung desselben sowohl parallel als auch senkrecht zur Probenoberfläche messbar ist. Diese Methode erlaubt die hochauflösende optische Untersuchung von lokalen Anisotropien, was in zahlreichen Gebieten der Materialwissenschaft, Speichertech- nik, Biologie und Nanooptik von Interesse ist.