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Mrs. Esther Brown, a White Jewish woman, made a significant contribution to the desegregation of public education in the 1940s. This research study establishes her role in the development of desegregation policy in public education in the contemporary public narrative on desegregation policy in the early1950s, the challenges to the implementation of the desegregation of public education, and the local context that led to the national fight against desegregation. The significance of this study is to highlight the struggles that activists, many of whom are unsung heroes, went through to navigate the struggles and processes that enabled the desegregation of public education in America.

Submitted by Jamile Barbosa da Cruz (jamile.cruz@ucsal.br) on 2016-10-25T13:20:29Z No. of bitstreams: 1 SILVA GBS-2015.pdf: 11659827 bytes, checksum: d8200f41be72692fac428a0003155f86 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Maria Emília Carvalho Ribeiro (maria.ribeiro@ucsal.br) on 2016-11-21T19:51:14Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 SILVA GBS-2015.pdf: 11659827 bytes, checksum: d8200f41be72692fac428a0003155f86 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-11-21T19:51:14Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 SILVA GBS-2015.pdf: 11659827 bytes, checksum: d8200f41be72692fac428a0003155f86 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-02-26 / A primeira década deste século foi marcada, entre outros aspectos, pela emergência do discurso de direitos em favor das comunidades tradicionais e em especial das remanescentes de Quilombolas, com isso exsurge um forte debate sobre tais direitos, inclusive quanto à educação nessas comunidades. O estudo analisou como ocorre o controle social da política social pública de educação, através dos Conselhos Nacionais e Estaduais de Educação, tomando como referência a interface com as políticas de educação na cidade de Cachoeira, neste Estado. Para levar a efeito a pesquisa, empregou-se a metodologia de análise de conteúdo com a técnica de pesquisa documental com análise quali-quantitativa e o estudo das Resoluções desses Conselhos no período de 2001 a 2013, além da pesquisa de dados, usando como fontes órgãos oficiais do Estado brasileiro, verificando a existência ou omissão de nomes e expressões previamente estabelecidos nessas resoluções, bem como sua periodicidade, que denotavam as contradições no ensino. Sob a premissa de que o Conselho de Políticas Sociais Públicas é um órgão que encerra uma série de contradições, todo o estudo foi realizado sob uma perspectiva do método dialético histórico, usando como categorias a contradição e a totalidade. Foi usado como perspectiva de análise crítica da ontologia do Estado, bem como de sua formação, da sociedade civil e movimentos sociais, situando-se esta pesquisa na noção de Democracia Deliberativa, reconhecendo o Conselho Quilombola do Vale do Iguape como um elemento fundamental para o controle social da política social de educação em Cachoeira. / The first decade of this century was marked among other things by the emergence of rights discourse in favor of traditional communities and especially the remnants of Quilombo with this, comes a tough debate on such rights, including the right to education in these communities. The study examined how is the social control of public social education policy, through the National Councils, State of Education, with reference to the interface with the education policies in the city of Cachoeira, in this state. To take effect the research used content analysis methodology with documentary research technique with qualitative and quantitative analysis to the study of these Councils resolutions from 2001 to 2013, in addition to data search, using as sources of organs official Brazilian state, verifying the existence or omission of names and expressions previously established in these resolutions as well as its frequency denoting the contradictions in teaching. Under the premise that the Board of Public Social Policy is an organ that contains a series of contradictions, all the study was conducted from the perspective of the historical dialectic method, using as categories the contradiction and all. It was used as a perspective of critical analysis of the state of ontology, as well as their training, civil society and social movements, reaching this research on the notion of participatory democracy. acknowledging the Quilombo Council Iguape Valley as a fundamental element for social control of social policy education in Cachoeira.

Submitted by Renata Lopes (renatasil82@gmail.com) on 2017-05-18T12:18:00Z No. of bitstreams: 1 wagnerjoseserraomaia.pdf: 1216741 bytes, checksum: 6a8207633d215f77014604b3ad7e2a63 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Adriana Oliveira (adriana.oliveira@ufjf.edu.br) on 2017-05-18T12:50:42Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 wagnerjoseserraomaia.pdf: 1216741 bytes, checksum: 6a8207633d215f77014604b3ad7e2a63 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-05-18T12:50:42Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 wagnerjoseserraomaia.pdf: 1216741 bytes, checksum: 6a8207633d215f77014604b3ad7e2a63 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-11-21 / A presente dissertação é desenvolvida no âmbito do Mestrado Profissional em Gestão e Avaliação da Educação (PPGP) do Centro de Políticas Públicas e Avaliação da Educação da Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora (CAEd/UFJF). O caso de gestão em estudo refere-se à discussão dos problemas relacionados às dificuldades que interferem na implementação do Conselho Municipal de Educação do Município de Urucurituba, Estado do Amazonas. Os aprofundamentos decorrentes destes estudos foram estruturados em três capítulos. No Capítulo 1, fez-se a descrição dos aspectos situacionais a partir de um caso de gestão, o que implicou em estudos dos documentos oficiais e caracterização dos sujeitos a fim de se ter uma compreensão das evidências que culminam em tais dificuldades decorrentes da não participação social e suas implicações no processo educacional do referido município. A par dos dados adquiridos na pesquisa documental, articulou-se, no Capítulo 2, o percurso metodológico da pesquisa qualitativa, a escolha da entrevista com roteiro semiestruturado como instrumento de pesquisa a qual foi aplicada a gestores, professores, conselheiros e comunitários considerando o modelo do ciclo de políticas (CONDÉ, 2012) tendo como referencial metodológico as reflexões de Duarte (2002). As análises fundamentadas na visão dos sujeitos abordados nos instrumentos de pesquisa foram ancoradas em autores que detém aprofundamentos no assunto, destacando: Cury (2006), Verne, Andrade e Thum (2008), Alves (2005), Gohn (2004 e 2006), Gadotti e Romão, (1993), Diegues (2013), Andrade (2010), Souza e Faria (2004), Souza e Vasconcelos (2006) que advogam a importância dos Conselhos como espaço de participação social no contexto do município com ênfase nos princípios que regem a democracia, a autonomia e a cidadania relacionados ao estudo da atuação dos Conselhos Municipais de Educação. Nesta perspectiva, foi possível perceber que há um conceito social local de que a atuação do Conselho Municipal de Educação é somente de natureza fiscalizadora propensa a gerar conflitos com a gestão municipal no que tange à formulação de políticas locais, o que resulta em uma cultura de absenteísmo participativo. Tendo em vista esta problemática levantada com fulcro em uma visão distorcida quanto ao papel, funções e atribuições do CME/Urucurituba propomos, no Capítulo 3, um plano com ações sistemáticas, articuladas e integradas constituída de 07 (sete) estratégias com parcerias entre a Secretaria Municipal de Educação, a CME/Urucurituba e a comunidade, todas direcionadas, no contexto da prática, às causas geradoras do problema nas quais pretende-se promover o interesse participativo da sociedade local neste colegiado que permeiam todo o processo em que o caso se insere. / This thesis is developed in the Professional Master in Management and Education Assessment (PPGP) of the Center for Public Policy and Education Evaluation of the Federal University of Juiz de Fora (CAEd / UFJF). The case management study refers to the discussion of the problems related to difficulties affecting the implementation of the Municipal Council of the City of Urucurituba Education, State of Amazonas. The insights resulting from these studies were structured in three chapters. In Chapter I, I made the description: situational aspects from a case management, which resulted in studies of official documents and characterization of the subjects in order to have an understanding of evidence to culminate in such difficulties arising from non social participation and its implications in the educational process of the municipality. Along with the data acquired in documentary research, was articulated in Chapter II, the methodological approach of qualitative research, the choice of semi-structured interview as a research tool which was applied to managers, teachers, counselors and community considering the cycle model policies (Condé, 2012) and the methodological framework reflections Duarte (2002). Analyses based on the vision of the covered subjects in research instruments were anchored in authors who holds insights on the subject highlighting: Cury (2006), Verne, Andrade and Thum (2008), Alves (2005), Gohn (2004 and 2006), Gadotti and Romao (1993), Diegues (2013), Andrade (2010), and Souza Faria (2004), Souza and Vasconcelos (2006) advocating the importance of councils as social participation space in the city of context with emphasis on the principles of democracy, autonomy and citizenship related to the study of the performance of Municipal Education Councils. In this regard, it is noted that there is a local social concept that the actions of the City Board of Education is the supervisory nature likely only to generate conflicts with the municipal administration regarding the formulation of local policies, resulting in a culture of participatory absenteeism. In view of this problem raised with fulcrum in a distorted view of the role, functions and powers of the CME / Urucurituba propose, in Chapter III, a plan, systematic actions, articulated and integrated composed of seven (07) Partitioned strategies for Secretariat Municipal Education, CME / Urucurituba and community all focused on the practical context, the generating causes of the problem in which it is intended to promote participatory interest of the local society in this board that permeate the whole process in the case is part.

The problem with which this study is concerned is that of tracing the history of state level laws and resolutions which affected the elementary school curriculum in Texas' public schools during the years 1950-1983. The roles of the legislature, the State Board of Education, and the State Department of Education in relation to the curriculum are presented. The purposes of the study are to review state level legislation since 1950 that affected the curriculum, to update the work of earlier historical accounts of public education in Texas, and to provide a basis for understanding the current state of curriculum by focusing on its evolution. Inspection of the data reveals that numerous topics were added to the elementary curriculum during the years under study, resulting in a fragmented and complex curriculum. Many of these topics were repealed in 1981. The study concludes that the State Board of Education and the State Department of Education, as well as the legislature exert considerable influence over the curriculum, and that this influence seems likely to increase as the result of reform legislation enacted in 1981. Further study relating to the implementation effects of the new curriculum is recommended.

Embodied pedagogy is a way of facilitating lessons which use the body as a locos of learning. Through a practice of storytelling, reflection, and imagination, embodied pedagogy evokes enactment and a release of emotions. This qualitative narrative study created multimodal portraits of embodied educators in the Newark Board of Education using the lens of Native Science and Ubuntu as epistemological frameworks. Using portraiture methodology, the lives of embodied educators were documented and reported in multimodal ways. The study is divided into three phases representing Ubuntu’s ontotriadic structure. The African philosophy of Ubuntu (“I am because you are”) centers community and recognizes the harmonious flow of life through three stages of existence (living dead—ancestors, living, yet to be born) and sees life as continuous motion. The three primary participants mirrored these three phases. The living dead was an ancestor, a deceased educator, and a dancer. The living is a current Newark teacher, and the yet-to-be-born is a preservice teacher (to be licensed). Their portraits were supported by interviews with secondary participants (colleagues, administrators, former students, cooperating teachers, family, and friends). Data were collected through interviews and observations. Portraiture methodology combines art and science to blend empiricism and aestheticism; the audience responds by being pulled into the narrative to experience the story as it unfolds. The portraits in this study function as art by exploring the physical context of the setting and illuminating the relationship between the researcher and participants. Each portrait is a beautiful, evocative, deep, compelling story of what is good and shines light on those aspects rather than on what is wrong and trying to right those wrongs. To actualize a full embodied experience, data analysis, and reporting included letter writing, poetry, visual art, movement phrases, song composition, and spoken word. The findings revealed the power of these collective stories, revealed through six themes and lessons learned that inform urban teacher preparation programs. The narratives demonstrate the importance of supporting students in their journey of becoming and recognizing the humanity in teachers and students.

Objective. The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between the COVID-19-related waivers and the number of Summer Food Service Program (SFSP) meals served, accessibility of SFSP sites, and implementation of the SFSP sponsored by the Office of Food and Nutrition Service (OFNS) of the New York City Department of Education (NYC DOE). Methods. This study is a convergent parallel mixed methods study. In the quantitative component, there are two research questions (“research question 1” and “research question 2”); the design is a non-experimental, one-group, completely within-subjects design; and the unit of analysis is NYC DOE geographic districts (n = 32). Research question 1 is “Among NYC DOE geographic districts, was there a significant difference in the number of SFSP meals served during the summers when the COVID-19-related waivers were used compared to the summers without the waivers?” Research question 2 is “Among NYC DOE geographic districts, was there a significant difference in the accessibility of SFSP sites during the summers when the COVID-19-related waivers were used compared to the summers without the waivers?” Both research questions 1 and 2 compare the first summer of the waivers (2020) to the six summers prior to the waivers (2014-2019) and the second summer of the waivers (2021) to the six summers prior to the waivers (2014-2019). In the qualitative component, there is one research question (“research question 3”); the methods consist of a document analysis of the policy memos for the waivers (n = 8) using the READ approach for document analysis of health policies. Research question 3 is “What were the intended relationships between the COVID-19-related waivers and SFSP participation, site accessibility, and implementation according to the policy memos for the waivers?” Data Analysis. For research question 1, the statistical tests are the repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) omnibus test and post-hoc analysis with Bonferroni adjustment. The primary outcome is the total number of SFSP meals served per student. For research question 2, the statistical tests are the repeated-measures ANOVA omnibus test and post-hoc analysis with the Bonferroni adjustment when the full sample is analyzed (n = 32), and the Friedman test and sign test with the Bonferroni adjustment when high poverty districts (n = 16), high non-White districts (n = 16), and high enrollment districts (n = 16) are analyzed. The primary outcome is the number of SFSP sites per 1,000 students. For research question 3, the analysis consists of deductive coding, inductive coding, and identification of themes. Results. For research question 1, the results show a significant increase in the number of SFSP meals served per student during the first summer of the waivers compared to summers 2016-2019 (p ≤ 0.01). However, there were no significant differences in the number of SFSP meals served per student during the second summer of the waivers compared to summers 2014-2019. Among the secondary outcomes, there was a significant increase in the number of breakfast meals served in August per student during both the first and second summer of the waivers compared to summers 2014-2019 (p < 0.05). For research question 2, the results show a significant decrease in the number of SFSP sites per 1,000 students during the first summer of the waivers compared to summers 2014-2019 (p < 0.01). Similarly, there was a significant decrease during the second summer of the waivers compared to summers 2015-2019 (p < 0.01). For research question 3, the results show that the Meal Service Time Flexibility Waiver may address pre-pandemic barriers in the SFSP, but the Parent/Guardian Meal Pickup Waiver may cause implementation issues. Conclusions. Among NYC DOE geographic districts, the waivers may increase the reach of breakfast meals served in August while decreasing the number of SFSP sites and making SFSP implementation easier. There is a need for a pilot study or more controlled study to establish causal relationships. Policymakers should consider making the Meal Service Time Flexibility Waiver and the Non-Congregate Feeding Waiver permanent flexibilities for summer meal programs.

Trans and queer children are experiencing discrimination starting in the earliest years of schooling. In a paradoxical era of increased support for transgender and queer children on the one hand, and persistent gender violence on the other, this study examines how the New York City Department of Education (NYCDOE) gender policy is taken up in Early Childhood Education practice. In particular, I ask: (a) What are early childhood teachers’ understanding of NYCDOE’s policy? (b) How do the larger social and material contexts, shape teachers’ enactments of the policy? (c) What do teachers’ understandings and enactments of NYC gender policy look like in their everyday classroom practices? I use a critical policy-as-practice conceptual framework that does not take policy for granted but understands that embedded in all the policy processes, there is always a great deal of negotiation of power, where some stakeholders are empowered and other perspectives are silenced. Through semi-structured interviews with district policymakers, school administrators, and early childhood teachers, this study unveils how different actors took up NYCDOE’s gender policy in their practice, in accordance with their own ideas, motivations, and broader social and material contexts. Findings indicate that the policy formation processes excluded the knowledge and perspectives of school communities and grassroots trans activist movements. Principals and teachers had little knowledge of the Guidelines on Gender and resources available, while several policy content and procedures reproduced gender and racial violence. Moreover, the sediment construct of childhood innocence shaped early childhood teachers’ gender-justice practices. Shifting understandings of gender, without revising understandings of childhood, this study concludes, hinders the possibility of transformative change.

In der aktuellen Bildungspolitik nimmt die Kompetenzorientierung eine große Bedeutung in der Planung von Unterricht ein. Aus diesem Anlass ist es wichtig, dass für die Planung von Unterricht neue Wege erschlossen werden, wie Kompetenzen gezielt gefördert werden können. Für den Geschichtsunterricht kann in diesem Zusammenhang das Brettspiel als Medium benannt werden, welches neue Unterrichtsformate ermöglicht. Für den gezielten Einsatz im Unterricht eignen sich jedoch marktübliche Brettspiele nicht immer, weshalb es notwendig ist, Brettspiele zu entwickeln, welche geeignet sind für einen Einsatz im Unterricht. Das Ziel dieser wissenschaftlichen Arbeit ist es, ein Brettspiel zu entwickeln, mit welchem ein kompetenzorientierter Geschichtsunterricht realisiert werden kann. Im Detail entstand dadurch die folgende Forschungsfrage: Welche Potenziale bietet der Einsatz eines selbst entwickelten Brettspiels im Hinblick auf einen kompetenzorientierten Geschichtsunterricht in der Sekundarstufe II. Für die Beantwortung der Forschungsfrage, wurde zunächst die Theorie hinter einem kompetenzorientierten Geschichtsunterricht zusammengefasst sowie ein Überblick über den Einsatz von Brettspielen im Unterricht konzipiert. Anschließend wurde ein Brettspiel entwickelt, welches die Soziale Frage in der Industrialisierung als Thema hat. Dabei wurden die didaktischen Überlegungen hinter dem Spiel dargelegt und das Spiel einem Praxistest unterworfen. Um es vorwegzunehmen, handelt es sich nicht um empirische Studien zum Kompetenzerwerb, sondern lediglich das Testen der Spieltauglichkeit wurde untersucht. Das entwickelte Brettspiel ist dabei das Ergebnis dieser wissenschaftlichen Arbeit. Durch das Lesen der Arbeit kann das Spiel kennengelernt werden. Außerdem sind didaktische Überlegungen zur Spielgestaltung dargestellt sowie Möglichkeiten des Einsatzes im Unterricht diskutiert worden. Zudem wurde erörtert, welche historischen und überfachlichen Kompetenzen durch das entwickelte Medium gefördert werden können.:Abstract 1 Vorwort und Danksagung 2 1 Einleitung 3 1.1 Ausgangssituation und Problemstellung 3 1.2 Ziele und Aufbau der Arbeit 4 Teil I: Theoretische Grundlagen 6 2 Kompetenzorientierter Geschichtsunterricht 6 2.1 Kompetenz – ein weiter Begriff 6 2.2 Kompetenzmodell – Was verbirgt sich dahinter? 8 2.3 Auswahl des Kompetenzmodells als Basis der Arbeit 9 2.4 Das FUER-Kompetenzmodell – eine Kurzvorstellung 14 2.5 Merkmale eines Kompetenzorientierten Geschichtsunterrichtes 19 2.6 Überfachliche Kompetenzen in Sachsen 23 3 Brettspiele im Geschichtsunterricht 25 3.1 Brettspiel – ein Begriff 25 3.2 Merkmale und Komponenten von Brettspielen 27 3.3 Das Medium Brettspiel im Geschichtsunterricht 29 3.3.1 Potenziale des Brettspieles gegenüber anderen Medien 30 3.3.2 Kritische Aspekte des Brettspieleinsatzes 35 3.4 Kompetenzerwerb durch Brettspiele im Geschichtsunterricht 39 3.5 Grundlagen zum Einsatz von Brettspielen im Unterricht 43 3.6 Empirischer Stand des Brettspieleinsatzes im Unterricht 46 4 Analyse der geschichtlichen Inhalte des Brettspieles 48 4.1 Sachanalyse – Soziale Frage in der Zeit der Industrialisierung 48 4.2 Didaktische Reduktion auf Unterrichtsniveau nach Sächsischen Lehrplan 54 Teil II: Das eigen entworfene Brettspiel für den Geschichtsunterricht 56 5 Vom ersten Pixel bis zum fertigen Brettspiel- der Entwicklungsprozess 56 5.1 Die Entwicklung der Brettspielidee 56 5.2 Die Herstellung der verschiedenen Spielmaterialien 58 5.3 Das Brettspiel – Vorstellung der wichtigsten Elemente 59 6 Didaktische Grundlagen des eigenen Brettspieles 64 6.1 Theoretische Grundlagen 64 6.1.1 Theoretischer Hintergrund der generellen Gestaltung des Brettspieles 64 6.1.2 Theoretischer Hintergrund der Brettspielelemente 69 6.1.3 Lehrplanbezug 79 6.2 Einsatzmöglichkeiten im Unterricht 81 6.3 Einsatzmöglichkeiten im privaten Bereich 88 6.4 Förderung für historische Kompetenzen 89 6.5 Überfachliche Kompetenzförderung 95 6.6 Kritische Aspekte 97 7 Praktische Erfahrungen 101 7.1 Praktische Erfahrungen außerhalb der Zielgruppe 101 7.2 Praktische Erfahrungen innerhalb der Zielgruppe 103 8 Schlussbetrachtung 106 8.1 Darstellung des Ergebnisses.. 106 8.2 Ausblick 110 Literaturverzeichnis 111 Anlagenverzeichnis 116

This project examines the activism of Black parents, students, and citizens who fought to obtain school equality and desegregation from the 1920s until the 1960s in southwest Virginia and consequently the resistance from White residents and officials. Resistance to the status quo of inequality between Black and White schools in Pulaski County, Virginia began as early as the 1920s. This activism continued through the 1930s and 1940s, with it finally leading NAACP attorneys Oliver Hill and Spottswood Robinson collaborating with Pulaski citizens in 1948 to file a discrimination lawsuit in the case Corbin v. School Board of Pulaski County. The activism did not end here as once the Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education that segregated schools were unconstitutional, Black residents in southwest Virginia localities such as Floyd, Galax, Grayson, and Pulaski worked together with NAACP attorney Reuben Lawson to file multiple lawsuits so Black students could attend White schools. Many of these lawsuits faced staunch resistance from White residents of these localities, even with the threat of closing schools due to Virginia's policy of Massive Resistance. I argue that looking at localities such as Pulaski, Floyd, Galax, and Grayson helps situate southwest Virginia into the larger context of Virginia history in terms of examining resistance, fighting for equality, and pushing desegregation in the area during the middle of the twentieth century. Black citizens in the western part of Virginia faced resistance from the White citizens, but they persevered with their activism in the courts and hometowns which ultimately contributed to the dismantling of segregated schools in Virginia. They pushed for equality within segregation and then for desegregation in the middle decades of the twentieth century. Examining the historiography of school equality and desegregation in Virginia demonstrates that there is an overgeneralization about the resistance which occurred in the western half of the state. Historians argue that the eastern part of the state saw more modes of resistance, especially Massive Resistance, due to the higher population of Black residents. On the other hand, they ignore the western part as they believe the same resistance did not occur due to a lower population of Black residents. I reject these notions as Massive Resistance found its way into southwest Virginia through either the threat of or action of closing schools. I have dug more deeply into the sources, such as trial transcripts, legal correspondence, school board records, petitions, court cases, testimony, newspapers, and oral histories to understand the avenues Black residents in southwest Virginia used to fight inequality and segregation. / Master of Arts / This project examines the activism of Black parents, students, and citizens who fought to obtain school equality and desegregation from the 1920s until the 1960s in southwest Virginia and consequently the resistance from White residents and officials. Resistance to the status quo of inequality between Black and White schools in Pulaski County, Virginia began as early as the 1920s. This activism continued through the 1930s and 1940s, with it finally leading NAACP attorneys Oliver Hill and Spottswood Robinson collaborating with Pulaski citizens in 1948 to file a discrimination lawsuit in the case Corbin v. School Board of Pulaski County. The activism did not end here as once the Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education that segregated schools were unconstitutional, Black residents in southwest Virginia localities such as Floyd, Galax, Grayson, and Pulaski worked together with NAACP attorney Reuben Lawson to file multiple lawsuits so Black students could attend White schools. Many of these lawsuits faced staunch resistance from White residents of these localities, even with the threat of closing schools due to Virginia's policy of Massive Resistance. I argue that looking at localities such as Pulaski, Floyd, Galax, and Grayson helps situate southwest Virginia into the larger context of Virginia history in terms of examining resistance, fighting for equality, and pushing desegregation in the area during the middle of the twentieth century. Black citizens in the western part of Virginia faced resistance from the White citizens, but they persevered with their activism in the courts and hometowns which ultimately contributed to the dismantling of segregated schools in Virginia. They pushed for equality within segregation and then for desegregation in the middle decades of the twentieth century.