O tratamento diferenciado dos países em desenvolvimento surge a partir da década de 70 como expressão de resistência dos países do então Terceiro Mundo a uma ordem mundial pós-guerra entendida essencialmente como injusta e cuja doutrina do desenvolvimento tal como prescrita não conseguia equalizar. A partir de movimentações políticas, os países em desenvolvimento emplacaram tal tratamento no âmbito de importantes documentos internacionais e acordos multilaterais. O tratamento diferenciado dos países em desenvolvimento se expressa no direito internacional ambiental por meio do princípio das responsabilidades comuns mas diferenciadas e respectivas capacidades, consagrado da Declaração do Rio sobre Meio Ambiente e Desenvolvimento, de 1992, e cuja expressão máxima é a Convenção-Quadro das Nações Unidas sobre Mudanças Climáticas (CQMC). Tendo como objeto o tratamento diferenciado dos países em desenvolvimento, delimitado às obrigações centrais no âmbito da CQMC, a presente pesquisa encara o problema de sua operacionalização desde a mencionada Convenção até o seu Acordo de Paris. Para tanto, a pesquisa vale-se do método dedutivo, uma abordagem estruturalista e materialista-histórica para a análise de conteúdo dos textos jurídicos, observando a operacionalização do tratamento diferenciado em nas obrigações em termos de vinculatividade, precisão e delegação. O resultado foi que as mudanças climáticas são necessariamente um debate sobre desigualdades em termos de responsabilidade, mitigação e vulnerabilidade. Sob a alegação de um mundo mais complexo, onde a expressão ‘Terceiro Mundo’ é substituída pela noção de ‘Sul Global’, afirma-se que tal enquadramento de uma dívida Norte-Sul não seria mais pertinente, esvaziando o significado do tratamento diferenciado dos países em desenvolvimento. Porém, a persistência da dívida Norte-Sul em termos dinâmicos aponta que tal tratamento diferenciado dos países em desenvolvimento também continua atual. No intuito de instrumentalizar as obrigações da Convenção, o Protocolo de Quioto – endossado principalmente pelos países europeus – estabelece uma arquitetura descendente, apoiado em normas diferenciais por meio de compromissos de redução precisos, vinculantes e firmados internacionalmente, tendo como destinatários, em um primeiro momento, os países desenvolvidos. O Acordo de Paris – que reflete a estratégia dos Estados Unidos desde antes da própria Convenção – estabelece uma arquitetura ascendente, recorrendo a normas contextuais, onde os compromissos são nacionalmente determinados e isentos de um escrutínio internacional. O Acordo – cuidadosamente redigido – não estabelece nenhuma obrigação substancial precisa ou mesmo vinculante sobre tais contribuições, deixando ampla margem para todos os países e tornando a liderança dos países desenvolvidos no enfrentamento das mudanças climáticas apenas uma obrigação retórica. Deste modo, conclui-se que, sob o argumento de prover diferenciação para todos, o Acordo de Paris esvazia o significado do tratamento diferenciado dos países em desenvolvimento. Entretanto, apenas no âmbito da delegação, ou seja, dos mecanismos de cumprimento estabelecidos pelo Acordo, notadamente o balanço geral de implementação por meio de ‘naming and shaming’ que os países em desenvolvimento poderão exigir a necessária liderança dos países desenvolvidos. / In the 1970s, countries recognised as ‘developing’ began to be treated differently with regard to international agreements and doctrines that affected those countries development, following a widespread consensus among developing countries that the post-war order was unjust. As a result of political moves, developing countries have introduced such treatment in the framework of important international documents and multilateral agreements. The differentiated treatment of developing countries is expressed in international environmental law through the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capacities enshrined in the 1992 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development and culminated in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Having as its object the differentiated treatment of developing countries, limited to the central obligations under the UNFCCC, this research faces how international climate agreements operated within the differentiated treatment for developing countries. The research is based on the deductive method, a structuralist and historical materialist approach to the analysis of the content of legal texts, observing the differential treatment in obligations in terms of obligation, precision and delegation. The result was that climate change is necessarily a debate on inequalities in terms of responsibility, mitigation and vulnerability. Under the claim of a more complex world, where the expression 'Third World' is replaced by the notion of 'Global South', it is stated that such framing of a North-South divide would not be more relevant, depriving the meaning of differential treatment of developing countries. However, the persistence of the North-South divide in dynamic terms points out that such differentiated treatment of the developing countries is still relevant. In order to implement the obligations of the Convention, the Kyoto Protocol - endorsed mainly by European countries - establishes a downward architecture, supported by differential norms through precise, binding and internationally agreed reduction commitments, directed primarily to developed countries. The Paris Agreement - which reflects the US strategy prior to the Convention itself - establishes an upward architecture, using contextual norms where commitments are nationally determined and thus exempt from international scrutiny. The Agreement - carefully worded - does not establish any substantive or precise binding obligation on such contributions, leaving wide scope for all countries and does not require substantive efforts from developed countries in tackling climate change. In this way, it is concluded that, under the argument of providing differentiation for all, the Paris Agreement emptied the meaning of the differential treatment of developing countries. However, only within the scope of the delegation, through compliance mechanisms established by the Agreement, notably the global stocktake through naming and shaming that developing countries may require the necessary leadership of the developed countries.

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / This paper presents the Horner-Wadsworth-Emmons olefination applied to preparing 22 new 5-alkoxy-3-trifluoromethyl-penta-2,4-dienenitriles (5), 5- phenylthio-3-trifluoromethyl-penta-2,4-dienenitriles (6) and ethyl 4-alkoxy-2- cyanomethylene-but-3-enoates (7) from the condensation between diethyl cyanomethylphosphonate (4) and β-alkoxyvinyl ketones (1), β-phenyltiovinyl ketones (2) and ethyl 4-alkoxy-2-oxo-but-3-enoates (3), furnishing the desired products with 10 to 93% yields. In a second step, this paper presents a simple and accessible novel synthetic route, for the preparation of a series of 30 unpublished 1,6- disubstituted 4-trifluoromethyl-pyridin-2(1H)-imines (14-19) from the condensation reaction of 5-aryl-3-trifluoromethyl-5-methoxy-penta-2,4- dienenitriles (Ar = Ph, 4-F-C6H4, 4-Br-C6H4, 4-Me-C6H4 and 4-MeO-C6H4) (5) with primary amines R-NH2 (R = Bu, 2-(1-cyclehexenil)ethyl, 2-(4- morpholinyl)ethyl, 2-phenethyl-ethyl, 2-(4-chlorophenethyl)ethyl and 2-(4- methoxyphenethyl)ethyl) (8-13), in a solvent free sealed system to give the expected products with yields between 20 to 98%. In addition, a series of new 6-substituted 4-trifluoromethyl-2H-pyran-2- ones (20) was obtained in 88 to 100% yeld, from the autocondensation reaction of 5-aryl-3-trifluoromethyl-5-methoxy-penta-2,4-dienenitriles (Ar = Ph, 4-F-C6H4, 4-Br-C6H4, 4-Me-C6H4 and 4-MeO-C6H4) (5), in a reflux system using water as solvent in the presence of HCl and 1 equivalent of ZnBr2. The pyridinimines, pyranones and dienes obtained in this work were identified and characterized by Hydrogen Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (H1NMR), Carbon-13 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (C13 NMR), Mass Spectroscopy (GC-MS-EI), High Resolution Mass Spectroscopy (HRMS-ESI) and Elemental Analysis. / Este trabalho apresenta a metodologia de olefinação Horner-Wadsworth- Emmons aplicada de maneira inédita na preparação de 22 novas 5-alcóxi-3- trifluormetil-penta-2,4-dienonitrilas (5), 5-feniltio-3-trifluormetil-penta-2,4- dienonitrilas (6) e 4-alcóxi-2-cianometileno-but-3-enoato de etila (7) a partir da reação entre cianometilfosfonato de dietila (4) e respectivas β-alcoxivinil cetonas (1), β-feniltiovinil cetonas (2) e 4-alcóxi-2-oxo-but-3-enoatos de etila (3), levando a formação dos produtos com rendimentos entre 10 e 93%. Numa segunda etapa, este trabalho apresenta uma nova rota sintética, simples e acessível, para a preparação de uma série de 30 inéditas 4- trifluormetil-piridin-2(1H)-iminas 1,6-dissubstituídas (14-19) a partir da reação de condensação entre os 5-aril-3-trifluormetil-5-metóxi-penta-2,4-dienonitrilas (Ar = Ph, 4-F-C6H4, 4-Br-C6H4, 4-Me-C6H4 e 4-MeO-C6H4) (5) com aminas primárias R-NH2 (R = Bu, 2-(1-cicloexenil)etila, 2-(4-morfolinil)etila, 2-fenetiletila, 2-(4-clorofenetil)etila e 2-(4-metoxifenetil)etila) (8-12), em um sistema fechado e sem solvente, obtendo os produtos esperados com rendimentos de entre 20 e 98%. Em outra etapa do trabalho, foram obtidas 4-trifluormetil-2H-piran-2-onas 6-substituídas (20) a partir da reação autocondensação de 5-aril-3-trifluormetil- 5-metóxi-penta-2,4-dienonitrilas (Ar = Ph, 4-F-C6H4, 4-Br-C6H4, 4-Me-C6H4 e 4- MeO-C6H4) (5), em um sistema de refluxo utilizando água como solvente, na presença de HCl e 1 equivalente de ZnBr2, obtendo-se os produtos esperados com rendimentos entre 88 e 100%.As piridiniminas, piranonas e dienos obtidos neste trabalho foram identificados e caracterizados por Ressonância Magnética Nuclear de Hidrogênio (RMN H1), Ressonância Magnética Nuclear de Carbono-13 (RMN C13), Espectroscopia de Massas (CG-MS-EI), Espectroscopia de Massas de Alta Resolução (HRMS-ESI) e Análise Elementar.

O tratamento diferenciado dos países em desenvolvimento surge a partir da década de 70 como expressão de resistência dos países do então Terceiro Mundo a uma ordem mundial pós-guerra entendida essencialmente como injusta e cuja doutrina do desenvolvimento tal como prescrita não conseguia equalizar. A partir de movimentações políticas, os países em desenvolvimento emplacaram tal tratamento no âmbito de importantes documentos internacionais e acordos multilaterais. O tratamento diferenciado dos países em desenvolvimento se expressa no direito internacional ambiental por meio do princípio das responsabilidades comuns mas diferenciadas e respectivas capacidades, consagrado da Declaração do Rio sobre Meio Ambiente e Desenvolvimento, de 1992, e cuja expressão máxima é a Convenção-Quadro das Nações Unidas sobre Mudanças Climáticas (CQMC). Tendo como objeto o tratamento diferenciado dos países em desenvolvimento, delimitado às obrigações centrais no âmbito da CQMC, a presente pesquisa encara o problema de sua operacionalização desde a mencionada Convenção até o seu Acordo de Paris. Para tanto, a pesquisa vale-se do método dedutivo, uma abordagem estruturalista e materialista-histórica para a análise de conteúdo dos textos jurídicos, observando a operacionalização do tratamento diferenciado em nas obrigações em termos de vinculatividade, precisão e delegação. O resultado foi que as mudanças climáticas são necessariamente um debate sobre desigualdades em termos de responsabilidade, mitigação e vulnerabilidade. Sob a alegação de um mundo mais complexo, onde a expressão ‘Terceiro Mundo’ é substituída pela noção de ‘Sul Global’, afirma-se que tal enquadramento de uma dívida Norte-Sul não seria mais pertinente, esvaziando o significado do tratamento diferenciado dos países em desenvolvimento. Porém, a persistência da dívida Norte-Sul em termos dinâmicos aponta que tal tratamento diferenciado dos países em desenvolvimento também continua atual. No intuito de instrumentalizar as obrigações da Convenção, o Protocolo de Quioto – endossado principalmente pelos países europeus – estabelece uma arquitetura descendente, apoiado em normas diferenciais por meio de compromissos de redução precisos, vinculantes e firmados internacionalmente, tendo como destinatários, em um primeiro momento, os países desenvolvidos. O Acordo de Paris – que reflete a estratégia dos Estados Unidos desde antes da própria Convenção – estabelece uma arquitetura ascendente, recorrendo a normas contextuais, onde os compromissos são nacionalmente determinados e isentos de um escrutínio internacional. O Acordo – cuidadosamente redigido – não estabelece nenhuma obrigação substancial precisa ou mesmo vinculante sobre tais contribuições, deixando ampla margem para todos os países e tornando a liderança dos países desenvolvidos no enfrentamento das mudanças climáticas apenas uma obrigação retórica. Deste modo, conclui-se que, sob o argumento de prover diferenciação para todos, o Acordo de Paris esvazia o significado do tratamento diferenciado dos países em desenvolvimento. Entretanto, apenas no âmbito da delegação, ou seja, dos mecanismos de cumprimento estabelecidos pelo Acordo, notadamente o balanço geral de implementação por meio de ‘naming and shaming’ que os países em desenvolvimento poderão exigir a necessária liderança dos países desenvolvidos. / In the 1970s, countries recognised as ‘developing’ began to be treated differently with regard to international agreements and doctrines that affected those countries development, following a widespread consensus among developing countries that the post-war order was unjust. As a result of political moves, developing countries have introduced such treatment in the framework of important international documents and multilateral agreements. The differentiated treatment of developing countries is expressed in international environmental law through the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capacities enshrined in the 1992 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development and culminated in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Having as its object the differentiated treatment of developing countries, limited to the central obligations under the UNFCCC, this research faces how international climate agreements operated within the differentiated treatment for developing countries. The research is based on the deductive method, a structuralist and historical materialist approach to the analysis of the content of legal texts, observing the differential treatment in obligations in terms of obligation, precision and delegation. The result was that climate change is necessarily a debate on inequalities in terms of responsibility, mitigation and vulnerability. Under the claim of a more complex world, where the expression 'Third World' is replaced by the notion of 'Global South', it is stated that such framing of a North-South divide would not be more relevant, depriving the meaning of differential treatment of developing countries. However, the persistence of the North-South divide in dynamic terms points out that such differentiated treatment of the developing countries is still relevant. In order to implement the obligations of the Convention, the Kyoto Protocol - endorsed mainly by European countries - establishes a downward architecture, supported by differential norms through precise, binding and internationally agreed reduction commitments, directed primarily to developed countries. The Paris Agreement - which reflects the US strategy prior to the Convention itself - establishes an upward architecture, using contextual norms where commitments are nationally determined and thus exempt from international scrutiny. The Agreement - carefully worded - does not establish any substantive or precise binding obligation on such contributions, leaving wide scope for all countries and does not require substantive efforts from developed countries in tackling climate change. In this way, it is concluded that, under the argument of providing differentiation for all, the Paris Agreement emptied the meaning of the differential treatment of developing countries. However, only within the scope of the delegation, through compliance mechanisms established by the Agreement, notably the global stocktake through naming and shaming that developing countries may require the necessary leadership of the developed countries.

Abstract The plant can be considered a superorganism that consists of the plant per se and numerous populations of pro- and eukaryotic microorganisms. The interactions between the plant and endophytic microorganisms colonizing plant internal tissues are typically commensalistic or mutualistic. However, information on the role of endophytes in plant defense is limited because pathways are only partly known and systemic responses are typically not seen. The aim of this thesis was to study the priming capacities of endophytic Methylobacterium sp. IMBG290 on potato (Solanum tuberosum L.). Priming of plants by non-pathogenic bacteria allows the host to save energy and to reduce time needed for development of defense reaction during a pathogen attack. Priming phenomenon was demonstrated for Methylobacterium sp. IMBG290 as an activation of salicylic acid and jasmonate/ethylene-dependent defense pathways after challenge inoculation with the pathogen. Moderate activation of plant antioxidant system may also contribute to resistance induction by the strain. The viable but nonculturable state is presumably a survival strategy observed for the majority of bacterial endophytes. Pathogen attack or environmental changes can activate these quiescent forms. Thus Methylobacterium+ sp. IMBG290 became cultivable upon plant inoculation by nonpathogenic bacteria. I observed that the composition of the endophyte community changed in response to Methylobacterium sp. IMBG290 inoculation in shoot tissues and correlated with potato disease resistance and growth promotion. Therefore, the activation of endophytic bacterial populations as a putative mechanism of plant disease resistance was proposed. Endophytes have a high agricultural potential. Growth- and resistance-promoting capacities of Methylobacterium sp. IMBG290 on potato were highly variable depending on the cultivar, pathogen, inoculum density, and environmental conditions. Context-dependent efficacy requires more attention when designing complex microbial inoculants capable influencing positively plant growth, resistance, and nutritional properties. / Tiivistelmä Kasvia voidaan pitää superorganismina, joka koostuu kasvista itsestään ja lukuisista pro-ja eukaryottisista mikrobipopulaatioista. Kasvin ja sen sisäosia asuttavien endofyyttisten mikro-organismien väliset vuorovaikutukset ovat yleensä kommensalistisia tai mutualistisia. Endofyyttien rooli kasvin puolustuksessa on kuitenkin huonosti tunnettu, koska reitit tiedetään vain osittain eikä järjestelmällisiä vasteita usein havaita. Tämän väitöskirjatyön tavoitteena oli tutkia endofyyttisen Methylobacterium sp. IMBG290-kannan kykyä vahvistaa perunan (Solanum tuberosum L.) puolustusta. Tautia aiheuttamattomat bakteerit kykenevät vahvistamaan kasvien puolustusta, mikä auttaa isäntäkasvia säästämään energiaa ja nopeuttamaan puolustusreaktiota patogeenihyökkäyksen aikana. Methylobacterium sp. IMBG290-kannan vahvistuskyvyn osoitettiin perustuvan salisyylihappo- ja jasmonaatti/etyleeni-riippuvaisten puolustusreittien aktivoimiseen patogeeni-istutuksen jälkeen. Antioksidanttijärjestelmän lievä aktivoituminen voi myös vaikuttaa kannan aiheuttamaan vastustuskyvyn lisääntymiseen. Suurimmalle osalle bakteeriendofyyteistä ‘elävä mutta viljelemätön’-olotila on luultavasti selviytymisstrategia. Patogeenihyökkäys tai muutokset ympäristössä voivat aktivoida tällaiset hiljaiset olomuodot. Methylobacterium sp. IMBG290-kanta muuttui viljeltävissä olevaan muotoon kun kasviin istutettiin tautia aiheuttamaton bakteeri. Selvitin, että endofyytti-yhteisön koostumus muuttuu vasteena Methylobacterium sp. IMBG290-kannan istuttamiseen kasvin verson solukoissa, korreloiden lisääntyneen perunan vastustuskyvyn ja kasvun kanssa. Siksi endofyyttisten bakteeripopulaatioiden aktivoitumista esitettiin uutena kasvin puolustusmekanismina. Endofyyteillä on suuret mahdollisuudet maataloudessa. Methylobacterium sp. IMBG290-kannan kasvua ja vastustuskykyä lisäävät ominaisuudet perunalla vaihtelivat lajikkeen, patogeenin, lisätyn bakteeriympin ja ympäristöolosuhteiden mukaan. Suunniteltaessa monimutkaisia bakteeriymppejä kasvien kasvin, vastustuskyvyn ja ravintosisällön lisäämiseksi, täytyy tällainen tilanteesta riippuva tehokkuus ottaa enemmän huomioon.

Studien undersöker om den svenska aktiemarknaden i regel presterar sämre mellan månaderna maj och september enligt den så kallade “ sell-in-may-and-go-away- effekten”. Vi använder den logaritmerade avkastningen för det svenska indexet OMXS30 som delas upp i olika perioder; maj till september, samt oktober till april. Avkastningen för dessa perioder jämförs genom att använda en regressionsmodell. Resultatet från undersökningen visar att effekten är positiv, samt signifikant på en-procentsnivå mellan 1986 till 2017 för OMXS30 iSverige. Studien tittar även på sell-in-may-and-go-away- effektens utveckling, och finner indikationer för att effekten avtar efter publiceringen av Bouman & Jacobsens undersökningav effekten år 2002. Indikationen på att effekten avtar kan betyda en högre grad av rationalitet hos investerare samt en mer effektiv marknad allt eftersom sell-in-may-and-go-away- effekten blir mer allmänt känd. Resultatet för att effekten skulle vara avtagande är dock inte statistisk signifikant och därmed inte heller statistiskt säkerställd.

L’élément financier est un élément fondamental de l’action publique. En effet, pour pouvoir assurer leurs missions de service public, les personnes publiques ont besoin de ressources monétaires suffisantes. Cette idée est aujourd’hui indiscutée. Pourtant, on observe qu’il subsiste un réel malaise sur le point de savoir s’il est souhaitable que lesdites personnes puissent agir en vue de satisfaire leurs propres intérêts financiers. Cet embarras tient pour beaucoup au fait que les malentendus qui ont longtemps obscurci l’analyse des rapports qu’entretiennent entre eux l’intérêt financier des personnes publiques et l’intérêt général n’ont pas tous été parfaitement dissipés. La clarification de ces rapports fait apparaître que l’intérêt financier des personnes publiques, quoique n’étant jamais un intérêt privé, ne doit pouvoir être traité comme un intérêt général dans les diverses hypothèses concrètes où l’administration entend le satisfaire qu’à la condition qu’il n’en résulte pas d’inconvénients excessifs pour les autres composantes de l’intérêt général, voire pour des intérêts purement privés jugés dignes de protection. L’intérêt financier doit donc être concilié à divers autres intérêts, publics et privés. Cette conciliation ne s’opère pas identiquement selon que l’administration prend en charge une activité dans un but financier ou qu’elle tient seulement compte de la dimension financière d’une activité dont le but n’est pas financier. / The financial element is a fundamental component of public policy. Indeed, in order to ensure their public tasks, public entities need sufficient monetary resources. This idea is now undisputed. Yet we observe that there remains a real unease about whether it is desirable that these entities can act to satisfy their own financial interests. This embarrassment is largely due to the fact that the misunderstandings that have long obscured the analysis of the relationships that these financial interest of public persons and the general interest have not all been completely dispelled. The clarification of these reports shows that the financial interest of public figures, although still standing still a general interest in principle, should be treated as such in the various concrete cases in which the administration intends to satisfy it only provided it does not result in unnecessary inconvenience for the other components of the public interest or for purely private interests worthy of protection. The financial interest must be reconciled with various other interests, public and private. This reconciliation does not operate identically as the administration supports an activity in a financial goal or that it takes into account only the financial dimension of an activity whose purpose is not financial.

Magister Legum - LLM / South Africa

Magister Legum - LLM

Le présent manuscrit développe une problématique liée à l’implication des capacités de gestion de buts et d’engagement des fonctions exécutives dans le raisonnement par analogie et son développement. Les trois premières expériences étudient cette problématique dans deux tâches de raisonnement par analogie différentes à travers l’étude des stratégies visuelles employées par des adultes et des enfants de 6-7 ans. Les résultats montrent des différences de stratégies visuelles entre les tâches, liées aux buts différents de celles-ci, ainsi que, entre enfants et adultes, des différences de patterns visuels liés à l’inhibition de l'information non pertinente pour la résolution des problèmes. Les deux expériences suivantes étudient les stratégies visuelles, toujours en lien avec le fonctionnement exécutif et le maintien du but, dans une tâche A:B::C:? dont la difficulté est manipulée afin de mettre en évidence des différences d’engagement de processus de contrôle et d’évaluation. Les résultats montrent un effet de la difficulté des essais, ainsi que du type de distracteur, dans les stratégies visuelles. Enfin les trois dernières expériences étudient l’implication de la flexibilité cognitive, une des fonctions exécutives, dans le raisonnement par analogie, chez l’enfant (5-6 ans), limité dans sa flexibilité. Les résultats montrent que l’ancrage dans un type de représentation, pertinent ou non pour la solution du problème, est lié à leur capacité à résoudre le problème, et suggèrent une difficulté à changer de représentation au cours de la résolution. Ces résultats sont finalement discutés en rapport aux modèles de raisonnement par analogie et de développement de cette capacité. / This manuscript develops an issue related to the involvement of goal management capabilities and executive functions in this type of reasoning and its development. The first three experiments examine this issue in two tasks of analogical reasoning, the scene analogy task and the A:B::C:? task, through the study of visual strategies used by adults, and children aged 6-to-7. The results show differences in visual patterns related to goals, and to the inhibition of irrelevant information for the solution of the problems, between the different tasks, and between children and adults. The following two experiments study the visual strategies, always in relation to executive functioning and goal management, in an A:B::C:? task whose difficulty is manipulated to highlight the difference in involvement of monitoring and evaluation processes. The results do show an effect of the difficulty of the test and the type of distractor in the visual strategies employed. Finally, the last three experiments investigate the involvement of cognitive flexibility, one of the executive functions, in the analogical reasoning of preschool children (5-6-year-olds), limited in their flexibility. The results show that their early anchoring in a type of representation, relevant or not to the solution of the problem, is related to their ability to solve the problem later, and thus suggest a difficulty in shifting their representation during the resolution of the problems. These results are finally discussed in relation to models of analogical reasoning and of the development of this ability, especially those integrating goal management and executive functions.

Le secteur associatif a pris une place considérable dans nos sociétés contemporaines. C’est un objet d’étude de la sociologie. L’accroissement de la sphère collective, sociale et publique fait aussi de l’association, une organisation utile pour la Société Civile et la firme. Sous différentes dénominations, elle s’est imposée pour réguler des professions, des métiers, des activités commerciales, des produits, des marchés voire des firmes. Dans le secteur des Cafés Hôtels et Restaurants, le potentiel stratégique d’associations de support à la firme telles que la Société des Meilleurs Ouvriers de France, les coopératives publicitaires des réseaux de franchise, les Disciples d’Escoffier, le Comité Français de Modernisation de l’Hôtellerie ou encore la Fédération des Franchisés ACCOR est analysé. Quatre groupes de théories (théories sociologiques, théories de la nature de l’association, théories des Institutions et théories des Organisations) permettent de mettre en évidence sa raison d’être et son utilité pour la firme. A des spécificités propres à ce mode d’organisation correspond une approche managériale autonome qui emprunte au management des affaires publiques et privées. / The voluntary sector has taken an important place in our contemporary societies. It is a topic of study for sociology. The increase of the collective, social and public sphere also makes of the association, a useful organization for the Civil Society and the Firm.Under various names, she was imperative to regulate occupations, jobs, businesses, commercial activities, products, markets and even firms. In the sector of Coffees, Hotels and Restaurants, the strategic potential of associations of support to the firm such as the Company of France’s Best Workers, the advertising cooperatives of the franchise networks, the Escoffier’s Followers, the Hospitality Modernization French Committee or the ACCOR Franchisees Federation is analyzed. Four groups of theories (sociological theories, theories of the nature of the association, Institutions theories and Organizations theories) allows to highlight its purpose and its utility to the firm. At the appropriate specificities of this type of organization corresponds an independent management approach which borrows from the management of the public and private affairs.