There is evidence from the literature that the negative emotions and behaviours that bystanders expressed in reactions to witnessing bullying could have stemmed from self-debasing cognitive distortions and errors in thinking patterns which included personalisation, catastrophising, over-generalisation and selective abstraction. For this reason, the purpose of this qualitative descriptive-exploratory study was to explore and describe 10 early adolescent bystanders' experiences of school bullying following a self-debasing cognitive distortion restructuring intervention. Appraisal and cognitive theory were adopted as the overarching theoretical framework. This is because both theories demonstrated how individual thinking patterns could play a primary and significant role in the development and maintenance of emotional and behavioural responses to events witnessed or experienced. A descriptive-exploratory research design was used because it best suited the purpose of the study. The philosophical assumption underpinning this study emanated from an interpretivism paradigm which is a paradigm concerned with understanding the world from the perspective of people‟s experiences thereof. Purposive sampling was used to select 10 participants who were within the age range of 11 to 13 years for the study. Individual interviews were used as formal data collection strategies while a reflective research journal and audio recordings were used as additional data collection methods. The inductive thematic data analysis process was followed to analyse all data collected. The data was collected and analysed in two stages. The findings of this study, from the pre-intervention phase, indicated that personalisation evoked self-blame and feelings of guilt; catastrophising amplified anxiety and fear; overgeneralisation induced and exacerbated a negative perception of school safety and selective abstraction led to indirect co-victimisation. The findings that emerged at the first stage informed the common concepts that were addressed in the intervention. The findings of this study from the post-intervention phase revealed specifically that the self-debasing cognitive distortion restructuring intervention modified bystanders‟ experiences of school bullying. There were observable reduction in bystanders‟ negative emotional and behavioural reactions to witnessing bullying as a result of learning to challenge the validity and reality of distortions in their thinking patterns. Therefore, it is recommended that school counsellors and educational psychologists should provide adequate support to victims of bullying by equipping them with cognitive restructuring skills to root out the source of bias in their thought patterns. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2020. / Educational Psychology / PhD / Unrestricted

Wearing a virtual reality head-mounted display (VR-HMD) disconnects users from the real- world context that they are physically in. While one solution is to have everyone in the room wear VR-HMDs, this is not inclusive for all users. For example, children are not recommended to wear VR-HMDs due to eyesight concerns, and individuals with cybersickness, make-up, or thick hair texture may not want to wear them. In this thesis, we investigated the effects of using motion-tracked tablets as a window through which people can see the virtual world and understand how we can offer a more inclusive and social VR experience. Finally, we explore our in-lab user study to evaluate the usability of such a system, and we compare it against watching the VR-HMD user's egocentric view on a computer screen. Our results show that the tablet-based VR system is highly usable. Because of its agency, the participants felt more present and preferred the tablet-based system over the baseline method. / Master of Science / Wearing a VR-HMD (Virtual Reality Head Mounted Display) to enter VR (Virtual reality) usually cuts the user off from the real-world context around them. One possible solution to this problem is to let everyone wear VR-HMDs. But it is not feasible for everyone. Some individuals experience cybersickness or physical constraints such as glasses, thick hair, or makeup. Additionally, children are not allowed to wear VR-HMD as it may affect their eyesight. We propose a solution to this problem by enabling users to use motion-tracked tablets. Motion-tracked tablets refer to tablets such as iPad, Galaxy Tab, etc., that are tracked inside a Virtual Environment (VE) using trackers such as Vive Tracker. The trackers track the relative location of the tablet inside the VE. We believe motion-tracked tablets will give the users a window to the VE. In this thesis, we investigated the effects of using motion-tracked tablets in VR to understand how we can offer a more inclusive and social VR experience. We explored how useful the users found the system, how situationally aware they were about the VE, and how present they felt in the VE. Our results show a preference for motion-tracked tablets over the egocentric view of the VR-HMD user through a computer screen.

With the explosion of social media, consumers are gaining control in social reach and can utilize online platforms to create and share misleading information when doing so helps to meet an end. This dissertation, consisting of three separate essays, represents an attempt to address how misleading information is created, how it is disseminated, and how it can be eliminated. Essay One (Chapter 2) uses a mixed-method approach to explore the Dark Triad, proactivity, and vigilantism in driving self-created misleading information sharing. Additionally, this essay introduces a dual-process model of inoculation theory to the marketing and consumer literature that shows how consumers autoinoculate when building justification to engage in malicious behavior. This process includes both automatic and analytical components that initiate a Negative Cascade. Without a larger number of posts, these initial messages may be overlooked. However, herd inoculation can develop when a message begins to sway larger groups. Essay Two (Chapter 3) determines that authentic messages from the original poster are most believable and most likely to initiate a Negative Cascade. This confirmation through mere exposure can then initiate herd inoculation as it flows to other consumers and develops further credibility. The implicit bystander effect is active when in the presence of larger groups. Findings suggest herd inoculation may go unbroken since posters exposed to a positive counter-cascade are less likely to both participate in a forum and post positive messages. Essay Three (Chapter 4) shows that when a consumer shares a message that develops into a Negative Cascade, additional effort is required to halt the consumer herd inoculation. The studies uncover the need for an overt response from the original poster to stop future sharing of misleading information and the role of brand-enacted quarantines in the prevention of the autoinoculation of consumer vigilantes. This dissertation shows how one message can become a much bigger problem for a brand when misinformation spreads. Insights within the dissertation provide numerous outlets for future research and numerous tools and recommendations for both academics and practitioners that hope to understand how misleading information is created, disseminated, and can be eliminated.

yes / It has long been recognized that "when bad men combine, the good must associate; else they will fall, one by one, an unpitied sacrifice in a contemptible struggle" (Burke 1770, p. 146). In order words, all that is needed for evil to triumph is for good people to do nothing. Edmond Burke made the peril of inaction and dissociation in the midst of wrongdoing clear. When the need to act against victimisation arises, resistance is essential, and should not befall a brave few, for as Burke contended, there is safety in numbers. Despite Burke's advice, social psychological research (most notably by Latané and Darley 1970; Milgam 1974; Zimbardo, Banks and Jaffe 1973) has demonstrated the unreliability of unsolicited prosocial intervention into even the most glaring atrocities. Simply put, the numbers needed to ensure safety may not be there. While the reasons for inaction are both complex and manifold, they invariably point to a lack of supererogation and fiduciary responsibility. People look on rather than intervene either because they do not consider the fate of others their responsibility or business (Zimbardo 2007). Hence, are those who witness rather than contest victimisation innocent bystanders or accomplices? The answer has particular consequences for employees made victims of unscrupulous corporate supervisors, leaders, managers, and, most notably, their followers. This paper examines the moral question that inaction against victimisation in the corporate realm raises.

Varje år drabbas ungefär 10 000 personer i Sverige av plötsligt hjärtstopp där chansen att överleva ett utanför sjukhus endast är 10%. Vid ett plötsligt hjärtstopp har tidigt startad hjärt-lungräddning visat sig fördubbla chanserna till överlevnad, vilket gör det till en livsviktig behandling. Hjärt-lungräddning måste däremot utföras på ett korrekt sätt och därmed presenteras riktlinjer för hur behandlingen ska utföras. Riktlinjer uppdateras ständigt för att behandlingen ska bli så effektiv som möjligt vilket har visat sig kunna leda till mindre kunskap samt ett sämre utförande när träning inom hjärt-lungräddning inte utförs kontinuerligt samt på ett korrekt sätt. Tidigare studier har därmed visat på svårigheter vid utförandet av behandlingen, där exempelvis flertalet personer har svårt att nå rätt kompressionsdjup. Denna studie ämnar därför att möta detta problem genom att tillsammans med Vital Signs och deras produkt CPR-guide undersöka huruvida tekniska hjälpmedel som ger feedback i realtid kan förbättra utförandet av kompressioner vid hjärt-lungräddning. Därmed är syftet med studien att undersöka om användningen av Vital Signs CPR-guide i samband med genomförande av hjärt-lungräddning förbättrar personer utan medicinsk bakgrunds utförande av behandlingen. Vidare formuleras studiens frågeställning på detta sätt: Hur skiljer sig utförandet av hjärt-lungräddning av bystanders med teknologiskt stöd jämfört med utförandet utan teknologiskt stöd utifrån European Resuscitation Council senaste riktlinjer? Studiens tester utfördes på 25 personer som fick utföra kompressioner på en docka som registrerade varje kompressions djup och takt. Testpersonerna började med att utföra hjärt-lungräddning i 1 minut utan något tekniskt hjälpmedel för att sedan utföra kompressionerna i 1 minut till, men denna gång med CPR-guide som tekniskt hjälpmedel. Utförandena med- och utan tekniskt hjälpmedel analyserades och jämfördes sedan för att se eventuell förbättring. Resultatet av studien visade att utförandet förbättrades avsevärt vid användning av tekniskt hjälpmedel. Det sammanslagna medelvärdet för utförandena ökade från 46,08 % till 82,40%, vilket innebär en förbättring på nästan det dubbla. Även takten för kompressionerna förbättrades från 96,92 kompressioner per minut till 109,40 kompressioner per minut. Förändringen innebar att kompressionerna gick från att vara för långsamma enligt riktlinjerna till en takt som hamnar inom riktlinjerna. Samma förbättring registrerades även för djupet på kompressionerna där testerna utan CPR-guide registrerade ett medelvärde under riktlinjerna på 46,60 för att sedan, med CPR-guide, hamna inom riktlinjerna med ett medelvärde på 51,48. Studiens resultat bekräftar och förstärker tidigare forskning inom området, som har visat på förbättringar i hjärt-lungräddning när tekniska hjälpmedel används. Detta nya bidrag till kunskap kan ha en betydande inverkan på fortsatt forskning och ökad förståelse för vikten av teknologiskt stöd i akuta situationer. Resultaten pekar på möjligheter till kvalitetshöjning vid hjärt-lungräddning och påvisar det unika och viktiga perspektiv som denna studie har tillfört. / Every year, 10,000 people in Sweden suffer from a sudden cardiac arrest, where the chance of surviving outside the hospital is only 10%. In the event of a sudden cardiac arrest, early CPR has been shown to double the chances of survival, making it a vital treatment. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation, on the other hand, must be carried out in a correct way and thus guidelines are presented for how the treatment should be carried out. Guidelines that are constantly updated so that the treatment is as effective as possible, which has been shown to lead to less knowledge and poorer performance when training in cardiopulmonary resuscitation is not carried out continuously and in a correct manner. Previous studies have thus shown difficulties in performing the treatment, where, for example, the majority of people find it difficult to reach the right depth. This study therefore aims to address this problem by investigating, together with Vital Signs and their product CPR-guide, whether technical aids that provide real-time feedback can improve the performance of compressions in cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Thus, the purpose of the study is to investigate whether the use of the Vital Signs CPR-guide in connection with the implementation of cardiopulmonary resuscitation improves the performance of the treatment by people without a medical background. Furthermore, the study's question is formulated in this way: How does the performance of cardiopulmonary resuscitation by bystanders with technological support differ compared to the performance without technological support based on the European Resuscitation Council's latest guidelines? The study's tests were performed on 25 people who were asked to perform compressions on a dummy that recorded the depth and rate of each compression. The test subjects started by performing cardiopulmonary resuscitation for 1 minute without any technical aid and then performed the compressions for 1 more minute, but this time with the CPR-guide as a technical aid. The executions with and without a technical aid were analyzed and then compared to see any improvement. The results of the study showed that performance improved significantly when using technical aids. The combined average of the executions increased from 46.08% to 82.40%, an improvement of almost twofold. The rate of compressions also improved from 96.92 compressions per minute to 109.40 compressions per minute. An improvement that means the compressions went from being too slow according to the guidelines to a rate that falls within the guidelines. The same improvement was also recorded for the depth of compressions where the tests without the CPR-guide recorded a mean value below the guidelines of 46.60 and then, with the CPR-guide, fell within the guidelines with a mean value of 51.48. The study's results confirm and reinforce previous research in the field, which has shown improvements in cardiopulmonary resuscitation when technical aids are used. This new contribution to knowledge may have a significant impact on continued research and increased understanding of the importance of technological support in emergency situations. The results point to opportunities for quality improvement in cardiopulmonary resuscitation and demonstrate the unique and important perspective that this study has brought.

Bullying continues to be a significant problem for children and adolescents. Peers are often involved in bullying as bystanders. Through their actions or inactions, bystanders can support the bullying, or can stop it by defending the person who is victimized. The increasing use and availability of digital communications technology has provided an avenue for electronic bullying. Little is known about the role of peers in electronic bullying, nor about how peers behave across traditional and electronic bullying. Using a developmental contextualism framework to examine how the peer group context and environmental contexts of bullying influence adolescent interactions, this group of studies aimed to identify and explore peer roles in electronic bullying, and to compare peer roles across traditional and electronic bullying contexts. The first study developed and validated an assessment of peer roles in electronic bullying, the Electronic Bullying Roles Questionnaire (EBRQ), based on the traditional bullying roles identified by Salmivalli and colleagues (Salmivalli, Lagerspetz, Björkqvist, Österman, & Kaukiainen, 1996). The second study examined the correspondence between peer bystander roles across traditional and electronic bullying environments. The third study examined peers who intervene in traditional and electronic bullying, by examining whether perceptions of the harmfulness of bullying would influence subsequent defending behaviours. Overall, our findings confirmed that peers are involved in electronic bullying, and that these electronic roles parallel the behaviours and characteristics associated with traditional peer roles. However, our findings also suggest that the unique features of the electronic environment can lead to inconsistencies in adolescent bystander behaviours across bullying contexts. This research has implications for understanding how the peer group behaves when witnessing bullying in both bullying contexts. In addition, this research illuminates some of the similarities and differences between traditional and electronic bullying. It is our hope that this research leads to a greater understanding of the factors related to peer participant roles in both bullying contexts. Understanding traditional and electronic peer roles may help to provide insight into the peer processes involved in bullying, which may in turn inform intervention efforts to encourage adolescents to defend others when confronted with bullying, no matter the context. / Thesis (Ph.D, Psychology) -- Queen's University, 2012-10-14 10:50:15.583

<p>Everyday thousands of children and teenagers live through the hell of bullying. This theoretical research essay describes analyses and gives a literature overview of the phenomenon of bullying from eight different ideal-typical aspects based on Max Weber’s concept of Ideal types as a tool to make text analysis. The essay also investigates and compares three studies with focus on what methodological tools the researchers have employed to come to their conclusions. With the results from this investigation the research essay discusses possible explanations to why results, conclusions and understanding on the self-concept and self-esteem of perpetrators of bullying are so contradictory between researchers. Findings suggest that differences in gender in the sample, sample-size and age-group variations could be possible explanations to why results differ between studies. The essay discusses bullying from a power theory perspective and presents thoughts on how such a perspective could be employed in future research. It also suggests more research in the sociological discipline and investigations on a contextual and organisational level considering that the present study has shown that the academic field of bullying have not been researched to a great extent from this perspective.</p>

Criminologists have long since marginalized passivity as a variable of interest when studying the phenomenon of harm-doing. In this thesis, I explore the role of passivity in such instances and build a case for its centrality to deviance. I also undertake a number of other tasks. First, I review the extent to which research throughout the academy has connected passivity to violence. Second, I explore whether criminological theories have incorporated the variable of passivity and how they could. Lastly, I reflect on why more work on passivity has not been done given its manifest connection to harm, and I offer suggestions on how criminology can move forward in integrating bystander behavior in its theories of harm-doing.

Everyday thousands of children and teenagers live through the hell of bullying. This theoretical research essay describes analyses and gives a literature overview of the phenomenon of bullying from eight different ideal-typical aspects based on Max Weber’s concept of Ideal types as a tool to make text analysis. The essay also investigates and compares three studies with focus on what methodological tools the researchers have employed to come to their conclusions. With the results from this investigation the research essay discusses possible explanations to why results, conclusions and understanding on the self-concept and self-esteem of perpetrators of bullying are so contradictory between researchers. Findings suggest that differences in gender in the sample, sample-size and age-group variations could be possible explanations to why results differ between studies. The essay discusses bullying from a power theory perspective and presents thoughts on how such a perspective could be employed in future research. It also suggests more research in the sociological discipline and investigations on a contextual and organisational level considering that the present study has shown that the academic field of bullying have not been researched to a great extent from this perspective.

There has been serious concerns about the pace at which juvenile criminality isincreasing globally(National Academies Press, 2001).Young people are increasinglybecoming susceptible to a wide variety of misdemeanors; from substance abuse and addictionto murder (ibid). Studies have empirically described many triggers as the root cause ofjuvenile delinquency (Archer, 2000).Some criminologists have attributed these types ofmisdemeanors to the environments to which these adolescents are/have been subjected to(Wikstrom, 2004). On this basis, this research aims to assess the liability, if any, ofbystanders/observers and enablers/facilitators of juvenile delinquency. The study employed aqualitative approach in evaluating the role of bystanders and enablers in juveniledelinquency. The outcome revealed that the majority of bystanders and enablers are equallyas guilty as the delinquent youth. Three theories were used to rationalize these findings; theanomie-strain theory, situational action theory and self control theory ( Chainey & Ratcliffe,2005). As a result, the study recommends adequate parental guidance, in-person supervision,parental awareness, governmental inclusion, the provision of social infrastructures as well asequal opportunities, among others.