Yes / Ion channels represent a large and growing family of target proteins regulated by gasotransmitters such as nitric oxide, carbon monoxide and, as described more recently, hydrogen sulfide. Indeed, many of the biological actions of these gases can be accounted for by their ability to modulate ion channel activity. Here, we report recent evidence that H2S is a modulator of low voltage-activated T-type Ca2+ channels, and discriminates between the different subtypes of T-type Ca2+ channel in that it selectively modulates Cav3.2, whilst Cav3.1 and Cav3.3 are unaffected. At high concentrations, H2S augments Cav3.2 currents, an observation which has led to the suggestion that H2S exerts its pro-nociceptive effects via this channel, since Cav3.2 plays a central role in sensory nerve excitability. However, at more physiological concentrations, H2S is seen to inhibit Cav3.2. This inhibitory action requires the presence of the redox-sensitive, extracellular region of the channel which is responsible for tonic metal ion binding and which particularly distinguishes this channel isoform from Cav3.1 and 3.3. Further studies indicate that H2S may act in a novel manner to alter channel activity by potentiating the zinc sensitivity/affinity of this binding site. This review discusses the different reports of H2S modulation of T-type Ca2+ channels, and how such varying effects may impact on nociception given the role of this channel in sensory activity. This subject remains controversial, and future studies are required before the impact of T-type Ca2+ channel modulation by H2S might be exploited as a novel approach to pain management. / This work was supported by grants from the British Heart Foundation, the Medical Research Council, and the Hebei Medical University

No / T-type Ca2+ channels are a distinct family of low voltage-activated Ca2+ channels which serve many roles in different tissues. Several studies have implicated them, for example, in the adaptive responses to chronic hypoxia in the cardiovascular and endocrine systems. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) was more recently discovered as an important signalling molecule involved in many functions, including O2 sensing. Since ion channels are emerging as an important family of target proteins for modulation by H2S, and both T-type Ca2+ channels and H2S are involved in cellular responses to hypoxia, we have investigated whether recombinant and native T-type Ca2+ channels are a target for modulation by H2S. Using patch-clamp electrophysiology, we demonstrate that the H2S donor, NaHS, selectively inhibits Cav3.2 T-type Ca2+ channels heterologously expressed in HEK293 cells, whilst Cav3.1 and Cav3.3 channels were unaffected. Sensitivity of Cav3.2 channels to H2S required the presence of the redox-sensitive extracellular residue H191, which is also required for tonic binding of Zn2+ to this channel. Chelation of Zn2+ using TPEN prevented channel inhibition by H2S. H2S also selectively inhibited native T-type channels (primarily Cav3.2) in sensory dorsal root ganglion neurons. Our data demonstrate a novel target for H2S regulation, the T-type Ca2+ channel Cav3.2. Results have important implications for the proposed pro-nociceptive effects of this gasotransmitter. Implications for the control of cellular responses to hypoxia await further study.

No / T-type Ca2+ channels regulate proliferation in a number of tissue types, including vascular smooth muscle and various cancers. In such tissues, up-regulation of the inducible enzyme heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) is often observed, and hypoxia is a key factor in its induction. HO-1 degrades heme to generate carbon monoxide (CO) along with Fe2+ and biliverdin. Since CO is increasingly recognized as a regulator of ion channels (Peers et al. 2015), we have explored the possibility that it may regulate proliferation via modulation of T-type Ca2+ channels. Whole-cell patch-clamp recordings revealed that CO (applied as the dissolved gas or via CORM donors) inhibited all 3 isoforms of T-type Ca2+ channels (Cav3.1-3.3) when expressed in HEK293 cells with similar IC50 values, and induction of HO-1 expression also suppressed T-type currents (Boycott et al. 2013). CO/HO-1 induction also suppressed the elevated basal [Ca2+ ]i in cells expressing these channels and reduced their proliferative rate to levels seen in non-transfected control cells (Duckles et al. 2015). Proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells (both A7r5 and human saphenous vein cells) was also suppressed either by T-type Ca2+ channel inhibitors (mibefradil and NNC 55-0396), HO-1 induction or application of CO. Effects of these blockers and CO were non additive. Although L-type Ca2+ channels were also sensitive to CO (Scragg et al. 2008), they did not influence proliferation. Our data suggest that HO-1 acts to control proliferation via CO modulation of T-type Ca2+ channels.

Yes / Ca2+ release from the Golgi apparatus regulates key functions of the organelle, including vesicle trafficking. However, the signaling pathways that control this form of Ca2+ release are poorly understood and evidence of discrete Golgi Ca2+ release events is lacking. Here, we identified the Golgi apparatus as the source of prolonged Ca2+ release events that originate from the nuclear ‘poles’ of primary cardiac cells. Once initiated, Golgi Ca2+ release was unaffected by global depletion of sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+, and disruption of the Golgi apparatus abolished Golgi Ca2+ release without affecting sarcoplasmic reticulum function, suggesting functional and anatomical independence of Golgi and sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ stores. Maximal activation of β1-adrenoceptors had only a small stimulating effect on Golgi Ca2+ release. However, inhibition of phosphodiesterase (PDE) 3 or 4, or downregulation of PDE 3 and 4 in heart failure markedly potentiated β1-adrenergic stimulation of Golgi Ca2+ release, consistent with compartmentalization of cAMP signaling within the Golgi apparatus microenvironment. β1-adrenergic stimulation of Golgi Ca2+ release involved activation of both Epac and PKA signaling pathways and CaMKII. Interventions that stimulated Golgi Ca2+ release induced trafficking of vascular growth factor receptor-1 (VEGFR-1) from the Golgi apparatus to the surface membrane. These data establish the Golgi apparatus as a juxtanuclear focal point for Ca2+ and β1-adrenergic signaling, which functions independently from the sarcoplasmic reticulum and the global Ca2+ transients that underlie the primary contractile function of the cell.

O trocador de Na+/Ca2+ (NCX) constitui um dos principais mecanismos de extrusão de Ca2+ intracelular em células excitáveis. Foi demonstrado que alterações no funcionamento do NCX estão relacionadas a diversas situações patológicas. Por este motivo, o entendimento do mecanismo molecular da manutenção da concentração de Ca2+ intracelular via NCX é importante para a compreensão do funcionamento do trocador, bem como para o desenvolvimento de fármacos. Além de transportar Na+/Ca2+, o NCX também é regulado por esses íons. Este trocador é composto por dois domínios transmembranares, cada um deles contendo 5 α-hélices (TM), e uma grande alça intracelular que conecta as hélices TM5 e TM6. O domínio transmembranar é responsável por catalisar o transporte de Na+/Ca2+ através da bicamada lipídica, enquanto que a alça citoplasmática está envolvida com a regulação do trocador. Esta alça contém dois domínios sensores de Ca2+ adjacentes, denominados CBD1 e CBD2. Apesar da importância fisiológica do NCX, o mecanismo de regulação alostérica do trocador por Ca2+ intracelular permanece desconhecido. Neste trabalho, a espectroscopia de ressonância magnética nuclear (RMN) de alta resolução foi utilizada para investigar a conformação e a dinâmica de CBD1 e CBD2 do trocador de Na+/Ca2+ de Drosophila melanogaster (CALX), isolados ou conectados covalentemente em uma construção denominada CBD12. Um total de 98% das ressonâncias da cadeia principal de CBD1 isolado na presença de Ca2+ foi assinalado, enquanto que na ausência de Ca2+, assinalamentos para apenas uma parte da cadeia principal puderam ser obtidos. Os assinalamentos adquiridos para CBD12 foram baseados na análise de um conjunto de espectros de RMN tridimensional heteronuclear e por comparação com os espectros dos domínios isolados. Uma análise preliminar dos deslocamentos químicos e dos parâmetros de relaxação de 15N obtidos para CBD1 indicou que este domínio é flexível na ausência de Ca2+, mas torna-se rígido após a adição deste íon. As medidas das velocidades de relaxação de 15N e de acoplamentos dipolares residuais (RDCs) de 1H-15N realizadas para CBD12 nas formas apo e holo indicaram que a ligação de Ca2+ em CBD1 estabiliza uma orientação rígida entre os domínios. A análise dos RDCs de 1H-15N mostrou ainda que a orientação média entre CBD1 e CBD2 é praticamente linear na ausência de Ca2+, enquanto que um ângulo menor é assumido após a adição deste íon. Os dados descritos nesta tese suportam um modelo de regulação alostérica em que a modulação da plasticidade de CBD12 pela ligação de Ca2+ no domínio CBD1 controla a abertura e o fechamento do trocador. / The Na+/Ca2+ exchanger (NCX) is a major mechanism for the extrusion of intracellular Ca2+ in excitable cells. It was demonstrated that altered functioning of this protein is related to various pathological situations. Therefore, the understanding of the molecular mechanism for maintaining the intracellular Ca2+ concentration by means of the NCX is important to understand the functioning of the exchanger and to develop drug-based therapies. Besides transporting Na+/Ca2+, the exchanger is also regulated by these ions. The NCX is composed of two transmembrane domains, each of them containing 5 transmembrane alpha-helices (TM), and a very large cytosolic loop that connects TM5 to TM6. The transmembrane domains are responsible for catalyzing the transport of Na+ and Ca2+ ions across the lipid bilayer, while the cytosolic loop is involved in regulation of the exchanger activity. It contains two regulatory Ca2+- binding domains, called CBD1 and CBD2, that appear in tandem. Despite the physiological importance of the NCX, the mechanism of allosteric regulation of the exchanger by intracellular calcium remains unclear. In this work we used high-resolution NMR spectroscopy to study the conformation and the dynamics of the two Ca2+-binding regulatory domains of Drosophila\'s Na+/Ca2+ exchanger (CALX), CBD1 and CBD2, in isolation as well as in a covalent construct called CBD12. Complete backbone NMR resonance assignments were obtained for the isolated CBD1 domain in the Ca2+-bound state, while partial assignments were obtained for CBD1 in the free state. Partial backbone NMR resonance assignments were obtained for the CBD12 construct through the analysis of a standard set of triple resonance NMR spectra. Additional assignments were obtained by comparison with the isolated CBD1 and CBD2 domains. A preliminary analysis of NMR chemical shifts and 15N relaxation data obtained for CBD1 indicates that this domain displays considerable amount of flexibility in the free state, but becomes more rigid upon Ca2+-binding. NMR 15N relaxation rates and 1H-15N residual dipolar couplings (RDCs) obtained for the Apo and Ca2+-bound states of the CBD12 domain indicate that calcium binding stabilizes a rigid inter-domain orientation. Analysis of 1H-15N RDCs further shows that Drosophila\'s CBD12 domain assumes an almost linear inter-domain orientation in the absence of Ca2+, while a smaller inter-domain angle was found in its presence. These findings support a model in which modulation of CBD12 plasticity by the binding of Ca2+ to the CBD1 domain controls the opening and closing of the exchanger.

Receptores purinérgicos e canais de cálcio voltagem-dependentes estão envolvidos em diversos processos biológicos como na gastrulação, durante o desenvolvimento embrionário, e na diferenciação neural. Quando ativados, canais de cálcio voltagem-dependentes e receptores purinérgicos do tipo P2, ativados por nucleotídeos, desencadeiam transientes de cálcio intracelulares controlando diversos processos biológicos. Neste trabalho, nós estudamos a participação de canais de cálcio voltagem-dependentes e receptores do tipo P2 na geração de transientes de cálcio espontâneos e sua regulação na expressão de fatores de transcrição relacionados com a neurogênese utilizando como modelo células tronco (CTE) induzidas à diferenciação em células tronco neurais (NSC) com ácido retinóico. Descrevemos que CTE indiferenciadas podem ter a proliferação acelerada pela ativação de receptores P2X7, enquanto que a expressão e a atividade desse receptor precisam ser inibidas para o progresso da diferenciação em neuroblasto. Além disso, ao longo da diferenciação neural, por análise em tempo real dos níveis de cálcio intracelular livre identificamos 3 padrões de oscilações espontâneas de cálcio (onda, pico e unique), e mostramos que ondas e picos tiveram a frequência e amplitude aumentadas conforme o andamento da diferenciação. Células tratadas com o inibidor do receptor de inositol 1,4,5-trifosfato (IP3R), Xestospongin C, apresentaram picos mas não ondas, indicando que ondas dependem exclusivamente de cálcio oriundo do retículo endoplasmático pela ativação de IP3R. NSC de telencéfalo de embrião de camundongos transgênicos ou pré-diferenciadas de CTE tratadas com Bz-ATP, o agonista do receptor P2X7, e com 2SUTP, agonista de P2Y2 e P2Y4, aumentaram a frequência e a amplitude das oscilações espontâneas de cálcio do tipo pico. Dados, obtidos por microscopia de luminescência, da expressão em tempo real de gene repórter luciferase fusionado à Mash1 e Ngn2 revelou que a ativação dos receptores P2Y2/P2Y4 aumentou a expressão estável de Mash1 enquanto que ativação do receptor P2X7 levou ao aumento de Ngn2. Além disso, células na presença do quelante de cálcio extracelular (EGTA) ou do depletor dos estoques intracelulares de cálcio do retículo endoplasmático (thapsigargin) apresentaram redução na expressão de Mash1 e Ngn2, indicando que ambos são regulados pela sinalização de cálcio. A investigação dos canais de cálcio voltagem-dependentes demonstrou que o influxo de cálcio gerado por despolarização da membrana de NSC diferenciadas de CTE é decorrente da ativação de canais de cálcio voltagem-dependentes do tipo L. Além disso, esse influxo pode controlar o destino celular por estabilizar expressão de Mash1 e induzir a diferenciação neuronal por fosforilação e translocação do fator de transcrição CREB. Esses dados sugerem que os receptores P2X7, P2Y2, P2Y4 e canais de cálcio voltagem-dependentes do tipo L podem modular as oscilações espontâneas de cálcio durante a diferenciação neural e consequentemente alteram o padrão de expressão de Mash1 e Ngn2 favorecendo a decisão do destino celular neuronal. / Purinergic receptors and voltage gated Ca2+ channels have been attributed with developmental functions including gastrulation and neural differentiation. Upon activation, nucleotide-activated P2 purinergic receptor and voltage-gated Ca2+ channel subtypes trigger intracellular calcium transients controlling cellular processes. Here, we studied the participation of voltage-gated calcium channels and P2 receptor activity in spontaneous calcium transients and consequent regulation expression of transcription factors related to retinoic acid-induced neurogenesis of mouse neural stem and embryonic stem cells (ESC). In embryonic pluripotent stem cells, proliferation is accelerated by P2X7 receptor activation, while receptor expression / activity needs to be down-regulated for the progress of neuroblast differentiation. Moreover, along neural differentiation time lapse imaging with means of a cytosolic calcium-sensitive fluorescent probe provided different patterns of spontaneous calcium transients (waves and spikes) showing that both, frequency and amplitude increased along differentiation. Cells treated with the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor (IP3R) inhibitor Xestospongin C showed spikes but not waves, indicating that waves exclusively depended on calcium release from endoplasmic reticulum by IP3R activation. Cells treated with the P2X7 receptor subtype agonist Bz-ATP and the P2Y2 and P2Y4 receptor 2-S-UTP increased frequency and amplitudes of calcium transients, mainly spikes, in embryonic telencephalon neural stem cells (NSC) and NSC pre-differentiated from ESC. Data obtained by luminescence time lapse imaging of stable transfected cells with Mash1 or Ngn2 promoter-protein fusion to luciferase reporter construct revealed increased Mash1 expression due to activation of P2Y2/P2Y4 receptor subtypes, while increased expression of Ngn2 was observed following P2X7 receptor activation. In addition, cells imaged in presence of the extracellular calcium chelator EGTA or following endoplasmic reticulum calcium store depletion by thapsigargin showed a decrease in Mash1 and Ngn2 expression, indicating that both are regulated by calcium signaling. Investigation of the roles of voltage gated Ca2+ channels in neural differentiation showed that Ca2+ influx in NSC pre-differentiated from ESC is due to membrane depolarization and L-type voltage gated Ca2+ channel activation, thereby controlling cell fate decision, by stabilizing the expression of MASH1 and inducing differentiation, by phosphorylation of the transcription factor CREB. Altogether these data suggest that P2X7, P2Y2, P2Y4 receptors and L-type voltage gated Ca2+ channels can modulate spontaneous calcium oscillations during neural differentiation and consequently change the Mash1 and Ngn2 expression patterns, thus favoring the cell fate decision to the neuronal phenotype.

La découverte de nouveaux agents antipaludiques est primordiale. A travers le monde, les chercheurs se sont focalisés sur plusieurs stratégies. Les plus développées sont : soit les tests de molécules issues de bibliothèques chimiques dans une recherche phénotypique (comme le test direct d’agents sur des cultures de parasites in vitro), soit la recherche de nouvelles molécules agissant sur l’activité d’une cible ou d’une voie spécifique et essentielle. Cette thèse est centrée sur le second type d’approche. Nous nous sommes intéressés aux transporteurs membranaires de P. falciparum. Pour cela, nous exprimons les protéines d’intérêt dans la levure et nous les purifions. Nous optimisons les tests fonctionnels, dans le but de : a) déterminer l’effet des molécules sur les cibles spécifiques ; b) tester leur effet sur les cultures d’érythrocytes infectés par P. falciparum in vitro ; c) vérifier leur toxicité sur des cellules de mammifères ; et d) réaliser le test des molécules les plus efficaces in vivo dans un modèle de paludisme murin. Notre travail actuel est focalisé sur l’ATPase6 de P. falciparum (PfATP6) et l’adénylate translocase (PfAdT), deux protéines membranaires essentielles localisées respectivement sur le réticulum endoplasmique et la membrane mitochondriale. Nous exprimons de manière hétérologue PfATP6 dans les membranes de levure, nous purifions la protéine et mesurons une activité ATPase spécifique. Nous avons ainsi pu tester une bibliothèque chimique importante et identifier des inhibiteurs spécifiques. Ces derniers ont ensuite été testés pour évaluer leur effet sur les stades érythrocytaires du parasite in vitro et leur cytotoxicité sur des cellules de mammifères. Pour le transporteur PfAdT, nous procédons comme pour PfATP6, mais nous avons choisi un autre type de test fonctionnel dans lequel la protéine est directement exprimée sur la membrane plasmique d’E. coli. Cela devrait permettre de mesurer le transport d’ATP radiomarqué, et l’identification d’inhibiteurs spécifiques dont les effets pourront être évalués sur des cultures de parasites in vitro et dans des essais de cytotoxicité. / New drug discovery for malaria treatment urges, now more than ever. There is no optimal solution to the search for new antimalarials. Worldwide, researchers have focused their energies on several strategies. The most commonly employed are: either by screening molecules issued from chemical libraries in a phenotypic way (i.e., direct testing of drugs on in vitro parasite cultures), or by searching for new molecules acting upon the activity of a specific essential target or pathway. This PhD thesis centers on the second type of approach. We are interested in targeting membrane transporters of P. falciparum. For this, we plan to express proteins of interest in yeast and proceed to their isolation. With optimized functional tests, we aim to: a) Determine the effect of molecules upon specific targets; b) Test their effect on P. falciparum in vitro erythrocytes cultures; c) As well as verify their toxicity on mammalian cells; and d) Perform in vivo testing of the best molecules on a rodent model for malaria. Our actual work is focused on the P. falciparum Ca2+ - ATPase 6 (PfATP6) and adenylate translocase (PfAdT), two essential membrane proteins localized on the endoplasmic-reticulum and the mitochondrial membrane, respectively. We were able to express heterologously PfATP6 in yeast membranes, purify the protein and measure a specific ATPase activity. With this, we have tested a large chemical library and identified specific inhibitors. These were then tested for their effect on in vitro blood stages of P. falciparum and for their cytotoxicity on mammalian cells. For the ATP/ADP carrier PfAdT, we proceeded as previously done with PfATP6 but we have also chosen another type of functional test where we express directly this protein in the plasma membrane of E. coli. This will enable in the future the measurement of radiolabelled ATP uptake, and the identification of specific inhibitors that could then be tested for their effect on P. falciparum in vitro cultures and for their cytotoxicity.

O trocador de Na+/Ca2+ (NCX) constitui um dos principais mecanismos de extrusão de Ca2+ intracelular em células excitáveis. Foi demonstrado que alterações no funcionamento do NCX estão relacionadas a diversas situações patológicas. Por este motivo, o entendimento do mecanismo molecular da manutenção da concentração de Ca2+ intracelular via NCX é importante para a compreensão do funcionamento do trocador, bem como para o desenvolvimento de fármacos. Além de transportar Na+/Ca2+, o NCX também é regulado por esses íons. Este trocador é composto por dois domínios transmembranares, cada um deles contendo 5 α-hélices (TM), e uma grande alça intracelular que conecta as hélices TM5 e TM6. O domínio transmembranar é responsável por catalisar o transporte de Na+/Ca2+ através da bicamada lipídica, enquanto que a alça citoplasmática está envolvida com a regulação do trocador. Esta alça contém dois domínios sensores de Ca2+ adjacentes, denominados CBD1 e CBD2. Apesar da importância fisiológica do NCX, o mecanismo de regulação alostérica do trocador por Ca2+ intracelular permanece desconhecido. Neste trabalho, a espectroscopia de ressonância magnética nuclear (RMN) de alta resolução foi utilizada para investigar a conformação e a dinâmica de CBD1 e CBD2 do trocador de Na+/Ca2+ de Drosophila melanogaster (CALX), isolados ou conectados covalentemente em uma construção denominada CBD12. Um total de 98% das ressonâncias da cadeia principal de CBD1 isolado na presença de Ca2+ foi assinalado, enquanto que na ausência de Ca2+, assinalamentos para apenas uma parte da cadeia principal puderam ser obtidos. Os assinalamentos adquiridos para CBD12 foram baseados na análise de um conjunto de espectros de RMN tridimensional heteronuclear e por comparação com os espectros dos domínios isolados. Uma análise preliminar dos deslocamentos químicos e dos parâmetros de relaxação de 15N obtidos para CBD1 indicou que este domínio é flexível na ausência de Ca2+, mas torna-se rígido após a adição deste íon. As medidas das velocidades de relaxação de 15N e de acoplamentos dipolares residuais (RDCs) de 1H-15N realizadas para CBD12 nas formas apo e holo indicaram que a ligação de Ca2+ em CBD1 estabiliza uma orientação rígida entre os domínios. A análise dos RDCs de 1H-15N mostrou ainda que a orientação média entre CBD1 e CBD2 é praticamente linear na ausência de Ca2+, enquanto que um ângulo menor é assumido após a adição deste íon. Os dados descritos nesta tese suportam um modelo de regulação alostérica em que a modulação da plasticidade de CBD12 pela ligação de Ca2+ no domínio CBD1 controla a abertura e o fechamento do trocador. / The Na+/Ca2+ exchanger (NCX) is a major mechanism for the extrusion of intracellular Ca2+ in excitable cells. It was demonstrated that altered functioning of this protein is related to various pathological situations. Therefore, the understanding of the molecular mechanism for maintaining the intracellular Ca2+ concentration by means of the NCX is important to understand the functioning of the exchanger and to develop drug-based therapies. Besides transporting Na+/Ca2+, the exchanger is also regulated by these ions. The NCX is composed of two transmembrane domains, each of them containing 5 transmembrane alpha-helices (TM), and a very large cytosolic loop that connects TM5 to TM6. The transmembrane domains are responsible for catalyzing the transport of Na+ and Ca2+ ions across the lipid bilayer, while the cytosolic loop is involved in regulation of the exchanger activity. It contains two regulatory Ca2+- binding domains, called CBD1 and CBD2, that appear in tandem. Despite the physiological importance of the NCX, the mechanism of allosteric regulation of the exchanger by intracellular calcium remains unclear. In this work we used high-resolution NMR spectroscopy to study the conformation and the dynamics of the two Ca2+-binding regulatory domains of Drosophila\'s Na+/Ca2+ exchanger (CALX), CBD1 and CBD2, in isolation as well as in a covalent construct called CBD12. Complete backbone NMR resonance assignments were obtained for the isolated CBD1 domain in the Ca2+-bound state, while partial assignments were obtained for CBD1 in the free state. Partial backbone NMR resonance assignments were obtained for the CBD12 construct through the analysis of a standard set of triple resonance NMR spectra. Additional assignments were obtained by comparison with the isolated CBD1 and CBD2 domains. A preliminary analysis of NMR chemical shifts and 15N relaxation data obtained for CBD1 indicates that this domain displays considerable amount of flexibility in the free state, but becomes more rigid upon Ca2+-binding. NMR 15N relaxation rates and 1H-15N residual dipolar couplings (RDCs) obtained for the Apo and Ca2+-bound states of the CBD12 domain indicate that calcium binding stabilizes a rigid inter-domain orientation. Analysis of 1H-15N RDCs further shows that Drosophila\'s CBD12 domain assumes an almost linear inter-domain orientation in the absence of Ca2+, while a smaller inter-domain angle was found in its presence. These findings support a model in which modulation of CBD12 plasticity by the binding of Ca2+ to the CBD1 domain controls the opening and closing of the exchanger.

No description available.

No description available.