Articular cartilage is an avascular and flexible connective tissue found in joints. It produces a cushioning effect at the joints and provides low friction to protect the ends of the bones from wear and tear/damage. It has poor repair capacity and any injury can result pain and loss of mobility. One of the common forms of articular cartilage disease which has a huge impact on patient's life is arthritis. Research on cartilage cell/tissue engineering will help patients to improve their physical activity by replacing or treating the diseased/damaged cartilage tissue. Cartilage cell, called chondrocyte is embedded in the matrix (Lacunae) and has round shape in vivo. The in vitro monolayer culture of primary chondrocyte causes morphological change characterized as dedifferentiation. Transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β), a cytokine superfamily, regulates cell function, including differentiation and proliferation. The effect of TGF-β1, 2, 3, and their manipulated forms in biological regulation of primary chondrocyte was investigated in this work. A novel method was developed to isolate and purify the primary chondrocytes from knee joint of neonate Sprague-Dawley rat, and the effect of some supplementations such as hyaluronic acid and antibiotics were also investigated to provide the most appropriate condition for in vitro culture of chondrocyte cells. Addition of 0.1mg/ml hyaluronic acid in chondrocyte culture media resulted an increase in primary chondrocyte proliferation and helped the cells to maintain chondrocytic morphology. TGF-β1, 2 and 3 caused chondrocytes to obtain fibroblastic phenotype, alongside an increase in apoptosis. The healing process of the wound closure assay of chondrocyte monolayers were slowed down by all three isoforms of TGF-β. All three types of TGF-β negatively affected the strength of chondrocyte adhesion. TGF-β1, 2 and 3 up regulated the expression of collagen type-II, but decreased synthesis of collagen type-I, Chondroitin sulfate glycoprotein, and laminin. They did not show any significant change in production of S-100 protein and fibronectin. TGF-β2, and 3 did not change expression of integrin-β1 (CD29), but TGF-β1 decreased the secretion of this adhesion protein. Manipulated TGF-β showed huge impact on formation of fibroblast like morphology of chondrocytes with chondrocytic phenotype. These isoforms also decreased the expression of laminin, chondroitin sulfate glycoprotein, and collagen type-I, but they increased production of collagen type-II and did not induce synthesis of fibronectin and S-100 protein. In addition, the strength of cell adhesion on solid surface was reduced by manipulated TGF-β. Only manipulated form of TGF-β1 and 2 could increase the proliferation rate. Manipulation of TGF-β did not up regulate the expression of integrin-β1 in planar culture system. The implications of this R&D work are that the manipulation of TGF-β by combination of TGF-β1, 2, and 3 can be utilized in production of superficial zone of cartilage and perichondrium. The collagen, fibronectin and hyaluronic acid could be recruited for the fabrication of a biodegradable scaffold that promotes chondrocyte growth for autologous chondrocyte implantation or for formation of cartilage.

OBJECTIF: Récemment, nous avons démontré que la modification du collagène type II (Col II) par le 4-hydroxynonénal (HNE), un produit de la peroxydation lipidique, est augmentée dans le cartilage arthrosique sans qu’on sache la signification de cette augmentation dans la pathogenèse de l’arthrose. L’objectif de cette étude vise à démontrer que cette modification affecte l’interaction chondrocytes/matrice extracellulaire (MEC) et en conséquence induit des changements phénotypiques et fonctionnels de ces cellules. METHODES: Des plaques de culture ont été préalablement cotées avec du Col II puis traitées avec du HNE (0.1-2 mM) excepté le puits contrôle. Les chondrocytes ont été ensuite ensemencés puis incubés pendant 48 heures. La viabilité des cellules est évaluée par le test MTT. Le Western blot est utilisé pour mesurer l’expression des molécules d’adhésion (l’ICAM-1 et l’intégrine α1β1), de la cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), du Col II ainsi que la phosphorylation de la p38 MAPK, ERK1/2 et NF-κB-p65. La RT-PCR en temps réel est utilisée pour mesurer l’expression de l’ARNm de l’ICAM-1, des intégrines α1β1, de la COX-2 et de la métalloprotéinases-13 (MMP-13). La détermination de l’expression de l’ICAM-1 à la surface des cellules est réalisée par cytométrie de flux. Des kits commerciaux ont servi pour mesurer le niveau de la MMP-13, de la prostaglandine E2 (PGE2), de l’activité de la caspase-8 et de la phosphorylation de la p38 MAPK, ERK1/2 et NF-κB-p65. RESULTATS: La modification du Col II par 0.2 mM HNE induit significativement l’expression des molécules d’adhésion telles que l’ICAM-1 et l’intégrine α1β1, de la MMP-13 sans avoir un effet sur la morphologie, la survie et le phénotype cellulaires. Nos résultats montrent aussi une forte augmentation de la phosphorylation de la p38 MAPK, d’ERK1/2 et de NF-κB-p65. Cependant, la modification du Col II par 2 mM HNE affecte la morphologie et la viabilité cellulaires et induit l’activité de la caspase-8. Elle inhibe fortement l’expression des integrines α1β1 et du Col II ainsi que la phosphorylation de l’ERK1/2 et de NF-κB-p65, mais par contre, induit significativement la production de la COX-2 et son produit la PGE2 ainsi que la phosphorylation de la p38 MAPK. Fait intéressant, le prétraitement des complexes HNE/Col II par 0.1 mM de carnosine empêche les changements phénotypiques et fonctionnels des chondrocytes. CONCLUSION : Ces nouveaux résultats suggèrent le rôle important de la modification du Col II par le HNE dans l’arthrose, en affectant le phénotype et le fonctionnement cellulaires des chondrocytes. La carnosine, par sa capacité de neutraliser le HNE, a révélé d’être un agent promoteur dans le traitement de l’arthrose. / OBJECTIVE: The regulation of cell phenotype and function by the surrounding environment is deeply altered by the oxidative modifications of extracellular matrix (ECM) components that modify their structural and functional properties. This modification may be one cause involved in cartilage degradation in osteoarthritis (OA). Type II collagen (Col II) was reported to be targeted for 4-hydroxynonenal (HNE) binding, a very reactive product of lipid peroxydation. In the present study, we investigated whether HNE-binding to Col II affects OA chondrocytes phenotype and function and then, we determined the protective role of carnosine treatment in preventing these changes. METHODS: Isolated human OA chondrocytes were seeded in control wells and in HNE/Col II adducts-coated plates and incubated afterwards for 48 hours. Adhesion molecules at protein and mRNA levels were determined by Western blotting, flow cytometry and real-time RT-PCR. Commercial kits were used to evaluate cell death, caspase-8 activity and levels of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), matrix metalloproteinase-13 (MMP-13), MAPK and NF-κB-p65. Col II, cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), MAPK and NF-κB-p65 levels were assessed by Western blotting. RESULTS: After 48 hours of incubation, the modification of Col II by 0.2 mM HNE induced strongly the expression of ICAM-1, integrin α1β1, MMP-13 and slightly COX-2 as well as PGE2 release without affecting cell morphology and viability as well as Col II expression. However, the modification of Col II with 2 mM HNE induced shape changes of cells from typical chondrocyte-like polygon shape to round semi-detached, affecting cells viability and inducing caspase-8 activity. It inhibited the expression of ICAM-1, integrin α1β1 and Col II, but in contrast, induced strongly PGE2 release and COX-2 expression. All these effects were prevented by 0.1 mM carnosine treatment, an HNE trapping drug. Carnosine was added to HNE-modified, Col II-coated plates 1h before cell seeding. Upon examination of different signalling pathways involved in these responses, we found that modified Col II with 2 mM HNE inhibited strongly the phosphorylation of ERK1/2 and NF-κB-p65 but induced strongly p38 MAPK. In contrast, the results indicated that MAPK and NF-κB-p65 were activated when cells were incubated with modified Col II by 0.2 mM HNE. CONCLUSION: The interaction between chondrocytes and collagen-bound HNE modulates different signalling pathways via adhesion molecules regulation and consequently leads to the expression of catabolic and inflammatory factors. Carnosine was shown to be an efficient HNE trapping agent able to counteract these effects.

L’arthrose ou ostéoarthrose (OA) est l’affection rhumatologique la plus fréquente au monde. Elle est caractérisée principalement par une perte du cartilage articulaire et l’inflammation de la membrane synoviale. L’interleukine (IL)-1ß, une cytokine pro-inflammatoire, joue un rôle très important dans la pathogenèse de l’OA. Elle exerce son action en induisant l’expression des enzymes cyclo-oxygénase 2 (COX-2), prostaglandine E synthétase microsomale 1 (mPGES-1) et l’oxyde nitrique synthétase inductible (iNOS) ainsi que la production de la prostaglandine E2 (PGE2) et de l’oxyde nitrique (NO). Ces derniers (PGE2 et NO) contribuent à la synovite et la destruction du cartilage articulaire par leurs effets pro-inflammatoires, pro-cataboliques, anti-anaboliques, pro-angiogéniques et pro-apoptotiques. Les modifications épigénétiques, telles que la méthylation de l’ADN, et l’acétylation et la méthylation des histones, jouent un rôle crucial dans la régulation de l’expression des gènes. Parmi ces modifications, l’acétylation des histones est la plus documentée. Ce processus est contrôlé par deux types d’enzymes : les histones acétyltransférases (HAT) qui favorisent la transcription et les histones déacétylases (HDAC) qui l’inhibent. L’objectif de ce travail est d’examiner le rôle des enzymes HDAC dans la régulation de l’expression de la COX-2, mPGES-1 et iNOS. Nous avons montré qu’au niveau des chondrocytes, les inhibiteurs des HDAC (iHDAC), trichostatine A (TSA) et butyrate de sodium (NaBu), suppriment l’expression de la COX-2 et iNOS au niveau de l’ARNm et protéique, ainsi que la production de la PGE2 et du NO, induites par l’IL-1ß. L’effet inhibiteur à lieu sans affecter l’activité de liaison à l’ADN du facteur de transcription NF-κB (nuclear factor κ B). La TSA et le NaBu inhibent également la dégradation induite par l’IL-1ß des protéoglycanes au niveau du cartilage. Nous avons également montré, qu’au niveau des fibroblastes synoviaux, les iHDAC, TSA, NaBu et acide valproïque (VA), suppriment l’expression de la mPGES-1 ainsi que la production de la PGE2 induites par l’IL-1ß. En utilisant diverses approches expérimentales, nous avons montré que HDAC4 est impliquée dans l’induction de l’expression de la mPGES-1 par l’IL-1ß. HDAC4 exerce son action, via son activité déacétylase, en augmentant l’activité transcriptionnelle de Egr-1 (early growth factor 1), facteur de transcription principal de l’expression de la mPGES-1. L’ensemble de ces résultats suggère que les inhibiteurs des HDAC pourraient être utilisés dans le traitement de l’OA. / Osteoarthritis (OA) is the most common form of arthritic diseases in the world. It is primarily characterized by the loss of articular cartilage and inflammation of the synovial membrane. Interleukin (IL)-1ß is a pro-inflammatory cytokine that plays a major role in the pathogenesis of OA. It induces the expression of cyclo-oxygenase 2 (COX-2), microsomal prostaglandin E synthase-1 (mPGES-1), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), as well as the production of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and nitric oxide (NO). The later (PGE2 and NO) contribute to articular cartilage destruction and synovitis through their pro-inflammatory, pro-catabolic, anti-anabolic, pro-angiogenic and pro-apoptotic effects. Epigenetic modifications such as DNA methylation, histone acetylation and methylation play a crucial role in gene expression. Among these modifications, histone acetylation is the most studied. Histone acetylation is determined by two types of enzymes: histone acetyltransferases (HAT) and histone deacetylases (HDAC) which activate and repress transcription, respectively. The purpose of these studies is to examine the role of HDAC enzymes in the regulation of COX-2, mPGES-1, and iNOS expression. We demonstrated that HDAC inhibitors (HDACi), trichostatin A (TSA) and sodium butyrate (NaBu), suppressed the Il-1ß-induced transcription and translation of COX-2 and iNOS, as well as the production of PGE2 and NO in chondrocytes. The inhibitory effect of HDACi on transcription does not affect the binding activity of NF-κB (nuclear factor κ B) to DNA. Treatment with TSA and NaBu also inhibited the Il-1ß-induced degradation of proteoglycan in cartilage explants. We also showed that HDACi, TSA, NaBu and valproic acid (VA), suppressed IL-1-induced-mPGES-1 expression and the production of PGE2 in synovial fibroblasts. Our data indicated that HDAC4 is involved in Il-1ß-induced expression of mPGES-1. HDAC4, through its deacetylase activity, up-regulated the transcriptional activity of Egr-1 (early growth factor-1), a principal transcription factor for the expression of mPGES-1. From our studies we propose that HDAC inhibitors can be used in the treatment of OA.

OBJECTIF: Récemment, nous avons démontré que la modification du collagène type II (Col II) par le 4-hydroxynonénal (HNE), un produit de la peroxydation lipidique, est augmentée dans le cartilage arthrosique sans qu’on sache la signification de cette augmentation dans la pathogenèse de l’arthrose. L’objectif de cette étude vise à démontrer que cette modification affecte l’interaction chondrocytes/matrice extracellulaire (MEC) et en conséquence induit des changements phénotypiques et fonctionnels de ces cellules. METHODES: Des plaques de culture ont été préalablement cotées avec du Col II puis traitées avec du HNE (0.1-2 mM) excepté le puits contrôle. Les chondrocytes ont été ensuite ensemencés puis incubés pendant 48 heures. La viabilité des cellules est évaluée par le test MTT. Le Western blot est utilisé pour mesurer l’expression des molécules d’adhésion (l’ICAM-1 et l’intégrine α1β1), de la cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), du Col II ainsi que la phosphorylation de la p38 MAPK, ERK1/2 et NF-κB-p65. La RT-PCR en temps réel est utilisée pour mesurer l’expression de l’ARNm de l’ICAM-1, des intégrines α1β1, de la COX-2 et de la métalloprotéinases-13 (MMP-13). La détermination de l’expression de l’ICAM-1 à la surface des cellules est réalisée par cytométrie de flux. Des kits commerciaux ont servi pour mesurer le niveau de la MMP-13, de la prostaglandine E2 (PGE2), de l’activité de la caspase-8 et de la phosphorylation de la p38 MAPK, ERK1/2 et NF-κB-p65. RESULTATS: La modification du Col II par 0.2 mM HNE induit significativement l’expression des molécules d’adhésion telles que l’ICAM-1 et l’intégrine α1β1, de la MMP-13 sans avoir un effet sur la morphologie, la survie et le phénotype cellulaires. Nos résultats montrent aussi une forte augmentation de la phosphorylation de la p38 MAPK, d’ERK1/2 et de NF-κB-p65. Cependant, la modification du Col II par 2 mM HNE affecte la morphologie et la viabilité cellulaires et induit l’activité de la caspase-8. Elle inhibe fortement l’expression des integrines α1β1 et du Col II ainsi que la phosphorylation de l’ERK1/2 et de NF-κB-p65, mais par contre, induit significativement la production de la COX-2 et son produit la PGE2 ainsi que la phosphorylation de la p38 MAPK. Fait intéressant, le prétraitement des complexes HNE/Col II par 0.1 mM de carnosine empêche les changements phénotypiques et fonctionnels des chondrocytes. CONCLUSION : Ces nouveaux résultats suggèrent le rôle important de la modification du Col II par le HNE dans l’arthrose, en affectant le phénotype et le fonctionnement cellulaires des chondrocytes. La carnosine, par sa capacité de neutraliser le HNE, a révélé d’être un agent promoteur dans le traitement de l’arthrose. / OBJECTIVE: The regulation of cell phenotype and function by the surrounding environment is deeply altered by the oxidative modifications of extracellular matrix (ECM) components that modify their structural and functional properties. This modification may be one cause involved in cartilage degradation in osteoarthritis (OA). Type II collagen (Col II) was reported to be targeted for 4-hydroxynonenal (HNE) binding, a very reactive product of lipid peroxydation. In the present study, we investigated whether HNE-binding to Col II affects OA chondrocytes phenotype and function and then, we determined the protective role of carnosine treatment in preventing these changes. METHODS: Isolated human OA chondrocytes were seeded in control wells and in HNE/Col II adducts-coated plates and incubated afterwards for 48 hours. Adhesion molecules at protein and mRNA levels were determined by Western blotting, flow cytometry and real-time RT-PCR. Commercial kits were used to evaluate cell death, caspase-8 activity and levels of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), matrix metalloproteinase-13 (MMP-13), MAPK and NF-κB-p65. Col II, cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), MAPK and NF-κB-p65 levels were assessed by Western blotting. RESULTS: After 48 hours of incubation, the modification of Col II by 0.2 mM HNE induced strongly the expression of ICAM-1, integrin α1β1, MMP-13 and slightly COX-2 as well as PGE2 release without affecting cell morphology and viability as well as Col II expression. However, the modification of Col II with 2 mM HNE induced shape changes of cells from typical chondrocyte-like polygon shape to round semi-detached, affecting cells viability and inducing caspase-8 activity. It inhibited the expression of ICAM-1, integrin α1β1 and Col II, but in contrast, induced strongly PGE2 release and COX-2 expression. All these effects were prevented by 0.1 mM carnosine treatment, an HNE trapping drug. Carnosine was added to HNE-modified, Col II-coated plates 1h before cell seeding. Upon examination of different signalling pathways involved in these responses, we found that modified Col II with 2 mM HNE inhibited strongly the phosphorylation of ERK1/2 and NF-κB-p65 but induced strongly p38 MAPK. In contrast, the results indicated that MAPK and NF-κB-p65 were activated when cells were incubated with modified Col II by 0.2 mM HNE. CONCLUSION: The interaction between chondrocytes and collagen-bound HNE modulates different signalling pathways via adhesion molecules regulation and consequently leads to the expression of catabolic and inflammatory factors. Carnosine was shown to be an efficient HNE trapping agent able to counteract these effects.

This work is concerned with the characterization of mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) specifically from bone marrow samples derived from patients with osteoarthritis (OA). The multilineage potential of mesenchymal stem cells as well as their ease of exvivo expansion makes these cells an attractive therapeutic tool for applications such as autologous transplantation and tissue engineering. Bone marrow is considered a source of MSC. However, there is a general assumption that the occurrence of MSCs and their activity in bone marrow diminishes with age and disease. This prompted us to isolate and identify multipotential and self-renewing cells from patients with the degenerative disease osteoarthritis, with the view of using these cells for autologous cell therapies. It is therefore of great potential benefit to investigate the isolation and characterization of stem cell/progenitors from bone marrow samples of patients with osteoarthritis in greater detail. We employed a single cell clone culture method in order to develop clonal cell populations from three bone marrow samples and characterized them based on their proliferation and differentiation capabilities. The clonal populations were grouped into fast-growing and slow-growing clones based on their proliferation rates. The fastgrowing clones displayed 20-30% greater proliferation rate than the slow-growing clones. The study also revealed that the proliferation rates were directly proportional to their differentiation capacities. Most of the fast-growing clones were found to be tripotential for osteogenic, chondrogenic and adipogenic lineages, whereas the slow growing clones were either uni or bipotential. Flow cytometry analysis for the phenotype determination using putative MSC surface markers did not reveal any difference between the two clonal populations indicating a need for further molecular studies. Two approaches were employed to further investigate the molecular processes involved in the existence of such varying populations. In the first method gene expression studies were performed between the fast-growing (n=3) and slow-growing (n=3) clonal populations to identify potential genetic markers associated with cell 'sternness' using the Stem Cell RT2 ProfilerTM PCR Array comprising a series of 84 genes related to stem cell pathways. Ten genes were identified to be commonly and significantly over represented in the fast-growing stem cell clones when compared to slow-growing clones. This included expression of transcripts beyond MSC lineage specification such as SOX2, NOTCH1 and FOXA2 which signified that stem cell maintenance requires a coordinated regulation by multiple signalling pathways. The second study involved an extensive protein expression profiling of the fast growing (n=2) and slow growing (n=2) clonal populations using off-line Two Dimensional Liquid Chromatography (2D-LC)/Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization (MALDI) Mass Spectrometry (MS). A total of 67 proteins were identified, of which 11 were expressed at significantly different levels between the subpopulations. Protein ontology revealed these proteins to be associated with cellular organization, cytokinesis, signal transduction, energy pathways and cell stress response. Of particular interest was the differential presentation of the proteins calmodulin, tropomyosin and caldesmon between fast- and slow-growing clones. Based on their reported roles in the regulation of cell proliferation and maintenance of cell integrity, we draw an association between their expression and the altered status in which the subpopulations exist. Based on our observations, these proteins may be prospective molecular markers to distinguish between the fast-growing and slow-growing subpopulations. In summary, this study demonstrated the existence of potential stem cells of therapeutic importance in spite of a supposedly smaller stem cell compartment in patients with osteoarthritis. Furthermore, the differentially expressed genes between the sub-populations highlight the 'sternness' of the potential clones, an observation supported by the expression of proteins which act as effective modulators in the maintenance of cell integrity and cell cycle regulation. This study provides a basis for more detailed investigations in search of selective cell surface markers

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Einleitung: Die Osteoarthritis ist für einen Großteil der Lahmheiten beim Pferd verantwortlich. Durch die starken Belastungen der equinen Gelenke schreitet die Osteoarthritis unweigerlich fort und setzt diese Tiere einem hohen Leidensdruck aus. Bisherige Therapien reichen nicht aus, um in osteoarthritischen Gelenken die physiologische Integrität des Knorpels wiederherzustellen. Humane und caprine nasale Knorpelzellen zeigten in präklinischen und klinischen Studien ein hohes Regenerationspotential und eine hohe Integrität nach autologer Implantation in Defekte des Gelenkknorpels. Dies wurde auf ihr „Hox-Gen-negatives“ Expressionsprofil zurückgeführt, das sich nach der Implantation dem des artikulären Knorpels anpasste. Ziel der Studie: Das Hox-Genexpressionsprofil nasaler Chondrozyten sollte mit denen artikulärer Chondrozyten in der Zellkultur verglichen werden, um den nasalen Knorpel auch beim Pferd als mögliche autologe Knorpelquelle zu identifizieren. Tiere, Material und Methoden: Knorpelgewebe wurde von 7 verstorbenen Pferden aus dem Nasenseptum und einem vorderen sowie hinterem Fesselgelenk entnommen, Chondrozyten isoliert und bis zur vierten Passage zweidimensional kultiviert. Während der Kultivierung wurden die Chondrozyten alle 3 bis 4 Tage mittelseines eigens erstellten Beurteilungsbogens evaluiert. Zellen aus der ersten (T1) und der dritten (T2) Subkultivierung wurden lysiert, die RNA extrahiert und in cDNA umgeschrieben. Es folgte eine qPCR, um die Expressionslevel von drei Hox-Genen (A3, D1, D8) und zwei knorpeltypischen Genen (SOX9, Kollagen II) an den drei verschiedenen Lokalisationen während T1 und T2 zu bestimmen. Die Quantifizierung der relativen Genexpression erfolgte anschließend mit der ΔΔCT-Methode unter Verwendung von RPL32 und GAPDH als Housekeeping-Gene. Zur statistischen Auswertung wurden die Multiple Lineare Regression, eine einfaktorielle Varianzanalyse (ANOVA) und ein zweiseitiger t-Test herangezogen. Die Signifikanzniveaus aller statistischen Tests wurden auf α= 0,05 festgesetzt. Ergebnisse: Die Hox-Genexpressionen unterschieden sich in Bezug auf die drei Lokalisation und die Messzeitpunkte nicht signifikant voneinander. Die nasalen Chondrozyten wiesen während der ersten Subkultivierung gegenüber den artikulären Chondrozyten signifikant höhere Kollagen-II-Expressionen auf. Eine „Hox-Gen-negative“ Expression konnte für die Tierart Pferd nicht bestätigt werden. Die vorliegende Arbeit zeigt, dass Pferde wahrscheinlich ein speziesspezifisches Hox- Gen-Expressionsmuster aufweisen und dass die equinen Hox-Genexpressionsprofile statistisch signifikanten individuellen Einflüssen unterliegen. Schlussfolgerung: Das equine Hox-Genexpressionsprofil unterliegt statistisch signifikanten individuellen Einflüssen, die bei einer potenziellen Zelltherapie zu beachten sind. Nasale Chondrozyten eignen sich beim Pferd aufgrund ihrer genetischen Ähnlichkeit, bezogen auf die Expressionen der untersuchten Hox-Gene, zu artikulären Chondrozyten und ihrer hohen Bereitschaft zur Kollagen-II-Bildung wahrscheinlich als potenzielle Quelle für die autologe chondrozytäre Implantation (ACI).:1. Einleitung ...................................................................................................... 1 2. Literaturübersicht .......................................................................................... 2 2.1 Knorpel ..................................................................................................... 2 2.1.1 Allgemeiner Überblick ....................................................................... 2 2.1.2 Chondrogenese und Regeneration .................................................. 3 2.1.3 Intraartikulärer Hyaliner Knorpel ....................................................... 3 2.1.4 Extraartikulärer Hyaliner Knorpel....................................................... 6 2.2 Osteoarthritis bei Mensch und Pferd ........................................................ 8 2.2.1 Bedeutung und Ätiologie ................................................................... 8 2.2.2 Pathogenese ..................................................................................... 9 2.2.3 Diagnostik ........................................................................................ 10 2.2.4 Bisherige Therapieansätze .............................................................. 12 2.3 Knorpelgewebe in der Forschung .............................................................13 2.3.1 Kultivierung von Chondrozyten ......................................................... 13 2.3.2 Tiermodelle in der Osteoarthritisforschung ....................................... 15 2.3.3 Neue Therapieansätze ..................................................................... 17 2.3.3.1 Stammzellbasierte Verfahren ...................................................... 17 2.3.3.2 Artikuläre autologe Chondrozyten .............................................. 19 2.3.3.3 Nasale Chondrozyten ................................................................. 21 2.4 Hox-Gene ................................................................................................ 22 2.4.1 Allgemeiner Überblick ..................................................................... ..22 2.4.2 Regulation der Hox-Gene ................................................................. 23 2.4.3 Erkrankungen im Zusammenhang mit Hox-Genen ........................... 25 3. Ziel der Studie ........................................................................................... 27 4. Publikation ................................................................................................ 28 5. Diskussion................................................................................................. 45 5.1 Primer ....................................................................................................46 5.2 Auswahl der Messzeitpunkte und Proben ............................................. 47 5.3 Hox-Genprofile kultivierter equiner Chondrozyten ................................ 49 5.4 Individuelle Hox-Genprofile ................................................................... 50 5.5 SOX9 und Kollagen II .............................................................................51 5.6 Hox-Genprofile im Vergleich verschiedener Spezies ............................. 53 5.7 Ausblick ................................................................................................ 53 6. Schlussfolgerung ...................................................................................... 55 7. Zusammenfassung ................................................................................... 56 8. Summary .................................................................................................. 58 9. Referenzen .............................................................................................. 60 9.1 Literaturverzeichnis .............................................................................. 60 9.2 Abbildungsverzeichnis.......................................................................... 71 10. Anhang .................................................................................................. 72 10.1 Evaluierungsbogen Chondrozytenkulturen ........................................ 72 10.2 Auszug aus der Korrelationsmatrix ..................................................... 73 10.3 Publikationsverzeichnis Christiane Storch .......................................... 74 11. Danksagung .......................................................................................... 75 / Introduction: Osteoarthritis is responsible for most of the lameness in horses. Due to severe stress on equine joints, osteoarthritis inevitably progresses and results in a high degree of suffering. Current therapeutic options are not sufficient to restore the physiological integrity of the cartilage in osteoarthritic joints. Human and caprine nasal chondrocytes demonstrated high regenerative potential and integrity after autologous implantation into articular cartilage defects in preclinical and clinical studies. This was attributed to their “Hox gene negative” expression profile, matching the profile of articular cartilage after implantation. Aim of the study: The Hox gene expression profile of nasal chondrocytes was compared with those of articular chondrocytes in a cell culture to address nasal cartilage as a possible autologous source also in horses. Animals, Material and Methods: Cartilage was harvested from the nasal septum, one anterior and one posterior fetlock joint of deceased 7 horses, chondrocytes were isolated and cultured two-dimensionally until the fourth passage. During cultivation, chondrocytes were evaluated every 3 to 4 days using a specially designed assessment sheet. Cells were harvested during the first (T1) and third (T2) subcultivation. RNA was extracted and transcribed into cDNA. Subsequently, qPCR was performed to determine the expression levels of three Hox genes (A3, D1, D8) and two tissue-identifying genes (SOX9, collagen II) of the three locations after T1 and T2. Quantification of relative gene expression was performed with the ΔΔCT method using RPL32 and GAPDH as housekeeping genes. Multiple linear regression, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), and two-tailed t-test were used for statistical analysis. The significance levels of all statistical tests were set at α= 0.05. Results: Hox gene expressions were not significantly different in terms of localization and measurement time points. Nasal chondrocytes exhibited significantly higher collagen II expression than articular chondrocytes during the first subcultivation. 'Hox gene negative' expression could not be confirmed in horses. This study demonstrates that equine Hox gene expression pattern is likely species-specific and that equine Hox gene expression profiles are subject to statistically significant individual influences. Conclusion: The equine Hox gene expression profile is subject to statistically significant individual influences that should be considered in potential cell therapy. Nasal chondrocytes are probably suitable as a potential source for autologous chondrocyte implantation (ACI) in horses due to their genetic similarity, in terms of the expressions of the examined Hox genes, to articular chondrocytes and their high propensity for collagen II formation.:1. Einleitung ...................................................................................................... 1 2. Literaturübersicht .......................................................................................... 2 2.1 Knorpel ..................................................................................................... 2 2.1.1 Allgemeiner Überblick ....................................................................... 2 2.1.2 Chondrogenese und Regeneration .................................................. 3 2.1.3 Intraartikulärer Hyaliner Knorpel ....................................................... 3 2.1.4 Extraartikulärer Hyaliner Knorpel....................................................... 6 2.2 Osteoarthritis bei Mensch und Pferd ........................................................ 8 2.2.1 Bedeutung und Ätiologie ................................................................... 8 2.2.2 Pathogenese ..................................................................................... 9 2.2.3 Diagnostik ........................................................................................ 10 2.2.4 Bisherige Therapieansätze .............................................................. 12 2.3 Knorpelgewebe in der Forschung .............................................................13 2.3.1 Kultivierung von Chondrozyten ......................................................... 13 2.3.2 Tiermodelle in der Osteoarthritisforschung ....................................... 15 2.3.3 Neue Therapieansätze ..................................................................... 17 2.3.3.1 Stammzellbasierte Verfahren ...................................................... 17 2.3.3.2 Artikuläre autologe Chondrozyten .............................................. 19 2.3.3.3 Nasale Chondrozyten ................................................................. 21 2.4 Hox-Gene ................................................................................................ 22 2.4.1 Allgemeiner Überblick ..................................................................... ..22 2.4.2 Regulation der Hox-Gene ................................................................. 23 2.4.3 Erkrankungen im Zusammenhang mit Hox-Genen ........................... 25 3. Ziel der Studie ........................................................................................... 27 4. Publikation ................................................................................................ 28 5. Diskussion................................................................................................. 45 5.1 Primer ....................................................................................................46 5.2 Auswahl der Messzeitpunkte und Proben ............................................. 47 5.3 Hox-Genprofile kultivierter equiner Chondrozyten ................................ 49 5.4 Individuelle Hox-Genprofile ................................................................... 50 5.5 SOX9 und Kollagen II .............................................................................51 5.6 Hox-Genprofile im Vergleich verschiedener Spezies ............................. 53 5.7 Ausblick ................................................................................................ 53 6. Schlussfolgerung ...................................................................................... 55 7. Zusammenfassung ................................................................................... 56 8. Summary .................................................................................................. 58 9. Referenzen .............................................................................................. 60 9.1 Literaturverzeichnis .............................................................................. 60 9.2 Abbildungsverzeichnis.......................................................................... 71 10. Anhang .................................................................................................. 72 10.1 Evaluierungsbogen Chondrozytenkulturen ........................................ 72 10.2 Auszug aus der Korrelationsmatrix ..................................................... 73 10.3 Publikationsverzeichnis Christiane Storch .......................................... 74 11. Danksagung .......................................................................................... 75

Articular cartilage is an avascular and flexible connective tissue found in joints. It produces a cushioning effect at the joints and provides low friction to protect the ends of the bones from wear and tear/damage. It has poor repair capacity and any injury can result pain and loss of mobility. One of the common forms of articular cartilage disease which has a huge impact on patient¿s life is arthritis. Research on cartilage cell/tissue engineering will help patients to improve their physical activity by replacing or treating the diseased/damaged cartilage tissue. Cartilage cell, called chondrocyte is embedded in the matrix (Lacunae) and has round shape in vivo. The in vitro monolayer culture of primary chondrocyte causes morphological change characterized as dedifferentiation. Transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-¿), a cytokine superfamily, regulates cell function, including differentiation and proliferation. The effect of TGF-¿1, 2, 3, and their manipulated forms in biological regulation of primary chondrocyte was investigated in this work. A novel method was developed to isolate and purify the primary chondrocytes from knee joint of neonate Sprague-Dawley rat, and the effect of some supplementations such as hyaluronic acid and antibiotics were also investigated to provide the most appropriate condition for in vitro culture of chondrocyte cells. Addition of 0.1mg/ml hyaluronic acid in chondrocyte culture media resulted an increase in primary chondrocyte proliferation and helped the cells to maintain chondrocytic morphology. TGF-¿1, 2 and 3 caused chondrocytes to obtain fibroblastic phenotype, alongside an increase in apoptosis. The healing process of the wound closure assay of chondrocyte monolayers were slowed down by all three isoforms of TGF-¿. All three types of TGF-¿ negatively affected the strength of chondrocyte adhesion. TGF-¿1, 2 and 3 up regulated the expression of collagen type-II, but decreased synthesis of collagen type-I, Chondroitin sulfate glycoprotein, and laminin. They did not show any significant change in production of S-100 protein and fibronectin. TGF-¿2, and 3 did not change expression of integrin-¿1 (CD29), but TGF-¿1 decreased the secretion of this adhesion protein. Manipulated TGF-¿ showed huge impact on formation of fibroblast like morphology of chondrocytes with chondrocytic phenotype. These isoforms also decreased the expression of laminin, chondroitin sulfate glycoprotein, and collagen type-I, but they increased production of collagen type-II and did not induce synthesis of fibronectin and S-100 protein. In addition, the strength of cell adhesion on solid surface was reduced by manipulated TGF-¿. Only manipulated form of TGF-¿1 and 2 could increase the proliferation rate. Manipulation of TGF-¿ did not up regulate the expression of integrin-¿1in planar culture system. The implications of this R&D work are that the manipulation of TGF-¿ by combination of TGF-¿1, 2, and 3 can be utilized in production of superficial zone of cartilage and perichondrium. The collagen, fibronectin and hyaluronic acid could be recruited for the fabrication of a biodegradable scaffold that promotes chondrocyte growth for autologous chondrocyte implantation or for formation of cartilage.

Les NADPH oxydases, Nox, sont les principaux médiateurs de la production des espèces réactives de l'oxygène, les ROS. Ces dérivés jouent un rôle essentiel dans les cellules et les tissus en tant qu'outil bactéricide, messager de signalisation ainsi que dans l'équilibre redox. Ils sont impliqués dans les pathologies inflammatoires, et les maladies du vieillissement. Le complexe de la NADPH oxydase des phagocytes est le prototype le mieux caractérisé ; gp91-phox sous-unité b du cytochrome b558 est la flavodéshydrogénase en charge du transfert d'électron depuis NADPH jusqu'à l'oxygène qui est réduit en anion O2.-. Les gènes codant des isoformes de gp91-phox (nox 1-5) ont été identifiés récemment dans les cellules non phagocytaires suggérant l'existence d'une famille de NADPH oxydases au caractère ubiquitaire. <br /><br />Nous cherchons à analyser le rôle des radicaux oxydants dans la dégénérescence cartilagineuse de l'arthrose et la nature de l'oxydase à l'origine de la production de ces dérivés réactifs de l'oxygène.<br /><br />Des chondrocytes humains immortalisés, lignée C20-A4, expriment Nox2 (gp91-phox) et ses partenaires principalement p22-phox et p67-phox, mais également l'oxydase Nox 4. Pour déterminer quelle est l'oxydase impliquée dans la synthèse de collagènases, Nox2 et Nox4 ont été surexprimées dans les chondrocytes C20-A4. Les cellules sont soumises à un stress cytokinique, Il1b. Puis la présence de la collagènase MMP-1 est évaluée par test ELISA dans le milieu de culture. <br /><br />Les résultats montrent que Nox 2 (la NAD(P)H oxydase des phagocytes) n'est pas impliqué dans la génération des ROS. Par contre, la synthèse des radicaux oxydants à partir de O2.- est significativement augmentée après la surexpression du gène codant Nox 4 dans les chondrocytes incubés en présence d'interleukine Il1b. On observe également dans ces conditions, une augmentation (x4) de la production de la collagènase, MMP-1 ce qui conduit à penser que les réactions de protéolyse matricielle engendrées dans l'arthrose pourraient être médiées par la NAD(P)H oxydase, Nox 4, en présence d'un stress cytokinique.<br /><br />La NAD(P)H oxydase, Nox 4, est proposée comme l'un des acteurs à l'origine de la dégénérescence cartilagineuse dans l'arthrose et pourrait être considérée comme une cible thérapeutique à atteindre.

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