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The global energy usage have been growing and is expected to grow in the forthcoming years. The negative effects of increased energy use are greatly depending on the type of base raw materials required for converting the energy and the negative consequences those have on the environment. From the energy used, fossil fuels stands for the largest part. Excess use of fossil fuels have been shown to have considerable negative effects on the environment, including, but not limited to global warming. Renewable energy is today the world’s fastest growing energy source limiting the negative consequences of growing energy use. The commercial and residential buildings stands together for about 40 % of the total energy usage. Residential buildings alone stands for 20 % of the total world delivered energy consumption by end-use sector. In EU the average residential energy use amounts to 25 % and for individual countries like Sweden and Finland it is 21 %. The EU energy efficiency directive from year 2012 sets a target to save 20 % of the unions primary energy usage by year 2020 compared to the year 1990. The EU countries also agreed in October 2014 on a new energy efficiency target of at least 27 % by the year 2030. To reach this goal, improved energy efficiency are required in all sectors. Finland’s energy efficiency law for buildings from 2013 greatly reduces the minimum energy usage allowed for new buildings. Finland is also preparing for a new law that would by 2020 require all new buildings to be zero or close to zero energy buildings. This is defined by the Ministry of the Environment as buildings that have very high energy efficiency, where the already greatly reduced energy demand is satisfied extensively by renewable energy. As part of the goal to greatly increase buildings energy efficiency, this work focus on heat exchangers for showers. The purpose of this project is to investigate how two different heat exchangers works for shower cabins. This is done by testing a system where the heat exchangers are linked together. The system works by transferring heat from the drainage water and the moist air to the incoming colder drinking water before the cold water is heated in the mixerto desired shower temperature. The measurements are taken for different simulated shower situations. The Heat exchangers efficiency are calculated and the energy savings are examined with annual energy savings. The payback time shows that the system is not currently viable. The efficiency need to be improved, the main issue being the constituent materials heat transfer attributes between cold and hot water. The results are discussed and it is concluded that the system would be viable with improved heat exchanger efficiency and adequate shower use, which depends on the user and the amount of people using the shower. The main issue with increased heat transfer efficiency is the greater risk of contamination between the incoming cold drinking water and the outgoing dirty drainage water.

Tree-ring dating was used to develop construction scenarios for two log structures, the Draper and the Fuller buildings. in the Edwards Plateau region of Texas. The Draper building was constructed in 1902-3, and added onto in 1906. The dating of the Fuller building is less certain, but the structure probably was built in the 1860s or 1870s.

Alfred Jackson was an enslaved African American born on The Hermitage plantation (outside Nashville, Tennessee) of President Andrew Jackson around 1810, and lived most of his life on the plantation. Staff from The Hermitage wished to better understand and interpret lifeways of those once enslaved on the plantation, but the date of construction of Alfred’s Cabin first had to be determined. Was it built when Alfred was enslaved or was a freedman? We extracted nearly 100 core samples from eastern red cedar logs used to construct the cabin. Of these, 39 cores were used to develop a master tree-ring chronology for the cabin. Crossdating of the Alfred’s Cabin chronology was accomplished using an eastern red cedar chronology developed by the Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory Tree- Ring Laboratory at Columbia University in Palisades, New York. The 39 series from Alfred’s Cabin resulted in a high-quality master tree-ring chronology, with an average inter-series correlation of 0.66 and an average mean sensitivity of 0.28. Graphical (skeleton plot and line plot) comparison and statistical crossdating with COFECHA anchored the Alfred’s Cabin chronology firmly between 1749 and 1842 (r = 0.45, n = 94 yrs, t = 4.83, p < 0.0001). Cutting dates of these 39 trees ranged from 1841 to 1843. This latter date indicates that the final trees used to construct the cabin were harvested in spring or early summer of 1843, with final construction of Alfred’s Cabin occurring soon after.

O conforto térmico e a dispersão e remoção de partículas em cabine de aeronave são função, fundamentalmente, do seu sistema de ventilação e distribuição de ar. Juntamente com a análise da influência do sistema de ventilação por mistura (MV), atualmente utilizado em aviões comerciais, no presente trabalho são propostos e analisados dois novos sistemas, o sistema de distribuição de ar pelo piso (UFAD) e o sistema de ventilação por deslocamento (DV). A análise experimental de condições de desconforto térmico local e de dispersão e remoção de partículas expiratórias foi realizada em um mock-up de uma aeronave comercial com 12 assentos, com 4 assentos por fileira. Os resultados mostram forte influência da temperatura do ar insuflado na cabine, de 18 °C e 22 °C, do ponto de geração de partículas na cabine, em assento junto à fuselagem e junto ao corredor, e da faixa de tamanhos de partículas, principalmente nas faixas de 2,0 a 3,0 µm e de 3,0 a 5,0 µm, de maior interesse no presente trabalho. Por fim, os resultados mostram que o sistema UFAD apresentou o melhor desempenho, tanto quanto ao desconforto térmico devido a correntes de ar, com valores abaixo de 20 % preconizado pelas normas ISO 7730 (2005) e ASHRAE 55 (2013), quanto à menor dispersão de partículas e maior eficiência na remoção de partículas na região de respiração, com eficiência na remoção de partículas maior em até 18,8 % em relação ao sistema DV e em até 41,6 % em relação ao sistema MV. O sistema DV apresentou resultados intermediários com relação ao desconforto térmico local, com pior resultado na região dos pés com média do desconforto térmico local de 22,7 % e muito boa eficiência na remoção de partículas em relação ao sistema convencional MV maior em até 32,0 %. O sistema MV apresentou as piores condições com relação ao desconforto térmico para a região da cabeça e dos pés, com média de pessoas insatisfeitas de até 25,7 %. O sistema MV também apresentou as piores condições com relação à eficiência de remoção de partículas com a maior quantidade total de partículas na região de respiração ao longo da aeronave. / Thermal comfort and particles dispersion and removal in an aircraft cabin depend, essentially, on its ventilation and air distribution system. Together with the analysis of the influence of the mixing ventilation system (MV), used in commercial aircrafts, in the present work two new systems are proposed and analyzed, the underfloor air distribution system (UFAD) and the displacement ventilation system (DV). Experimental analysis of local thermal discomfort conditions and dispersion and removal of expiratory particles was performed in a mock-up of a commercial 12 seat aircraft with 4 seats per row. The results show a strong influence of the temperature ot the air inflated into the cabin, of 18°C and 22°C, of the point of generation of particles in the cabin, at the seat next to the fuselage and near the corridor, and of the particle size range, mainly in the bands of 2.0 to 3.0 µm and 3.0 to 5.0 µm, of greater interest in the present study. Finally, the results show that the UFAD system presented the best performance, as well as the thermal discomfort due to drafts, with values below 20% recommended by ISO 7730 (2005) and ASHRAE 55 (2013), as well as the lower dispersion of particles and greater efficiency in the removal of particles in the respiratory region, with particle removal 18.8% in relation to the DV system and by up to 41.6% in relation to the MV system. The DV system presented intermediate results in relation to the local thermal discomfort, with worse results in the feet region with a mean of the local thermal discomfort of 22.7% and very good particle removal efficiency in relation to the conventional MV system of up to 32, 0%. The MV system presented the worst conditions in relation to the thermal discomfort for the head and feet region, with an unsatisfied average of up to 25.7%. The MV system also presented the worst conditions with respect to the removal efficiency of particles with the highest total amount of particles in the breathing region along the aircraft.

O sistema de distribuição de ar comumente utilizado em cabines de aeronaves consiste no insuflamento de ar na parte superior e retorno na parte inferior, com mistura do ar na cabine. Devido à sua característica de mistura, este sistema pode dispersar doenças infecciosas pelo ar na cabine. A eclosão mundial do vírus SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome) em 2003 demonstrou que a disseminação de contaminantes aéreos ainda é um evento não controlável, uma vez que foi rapidamente difundido mundo afora, principalmente porque pessoas infectadas viajaram de avião para cidades distantes. Fatos como esses têm motivado governos, empresas e instituições de pesquisa a investirem fortemente em pesquisa e desenvolvimento. Novos sistemas de ventilação e distribuição de ar em aeronaves, baseados em sistemas de ventilação por deslocamento e de distribuição de ar pelo piso, estão começando a ser testados. Neste contexto, no presente trabalho foi realizada análise experimental da dispersão de partículas expiratórias em cabine de aeronave, considerando diferentes arquiteturas de distribuição de ar, em mock-up de 12 lugares, utilizando gerador e contadores de partículas. Os ensaios foram realizados para três arquiteturas de distribuição de ar: sistema de ventilação por mistura (MV), sistema de distribuição de ar pelo piso (UFAD) e sistema pelo piso modificado (UFAD modificado), com a mesma vazão de ar de insuflamento em duas condições de temperatura do ar insuflado na cabine: 18 e 22°C. E com geração de partículas em dois pontos da cabine: perto da fuselagem e perto do corredor. As partículas foram geradas e medidas na altura da zona de respiração, a 1,10 m do piso. Os resultados mostram que o ponto de geração de partículas, bem como a temperatura do ar insuflado na cabine, tem grande influência na dispersão e na concentração de partículas ao longo da cabine. Uma menor temperatura do ar na cabine favorece a formação de plumas térmicas junto aos passageiros, aumentando a eficiência na remoção de partículas da cabine. O sistema UFAD apresentou a menor dispersão e a maior eficiência na remoção de partículas expiratórias da cabine, mostrando-se promissor para utilização também em cabines de aeronaves. O aumento na remoção de partículas expiratórias de 3 a 5 m, do sistema UFAD com relação ao sistema convencional MV, foi de até 63,4%. / The air distribution system commonly used in aircraft cabins consists the air insufflations at the top of the cabin with return of the air at the bottom, with mixing air within the cabin. Due to this mixing characteristic, this system can disperse infectious diseases through the cabin air. The global outbreak of SARS virus (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome) in 2003 showed that the spread of airborne contaminants is still an uncontrollable event, since it was quickly spread around the world, mainly because infected people who traveled by plane to distant cities. Facts like these have motivated governments, companies and research institutions to invest heavily in research and development. New ventilation systems and air distribution aircraft based on displacement ventilation systems and underfloor air distribution are beginning to be tested. In this context, the present work was made an experimental analysis of the expiratory particles dispersion in aircraft cabins considering different air distribution architectures in a mock- up containing 12 seats, using a generator and a particle counter. The experiments were performed in three architectures air distribution: mixing ventilation system (MV), underfloor air distribution (UFAD) and the underfloor air distribution modified (UFAD modified), all of them with the same air supply rate, considering two air supply temperature conditions: 18 and 22°C. And particle generation at two points of the cabin: near the fuselage and near the aisle. The particles were generated and measured in the breathing zone, 1,10 m from the floor. The results show that the point of generation of particles, and the air supply temperature, have great influence on the dispersion and particle concentration throughout the cabin. A lower air temperature in the cab favors the formation of thermal plumes within the passengers, increasing the efficiency in removing particles from the cabin. The UFAD system had the lowest dispersion and greater efficiency in removing expiratory particles from the cabin, being promising also for its use in aircraft cabins. The increase in expiratory removal of particles from 3 to 5 microns UFAD system with respect to conventional MV was up to 63.4%.

Cabines de aeronaves vêm sendo desenvolvidas de modo a tornar o ambiente a bordo mais aceitável e confortável para os seus usuários. No presente trabalho, a influência de sistema de ventilação personalizada instalado na poltrona na dispersão de partículas expiratórias foi estudada em um mock-up de 12 lugares, que reproduz o interior de uma aeronave comercial com quatro poltronas por fileira. Os ensaios foram realizados com temperatura do ar insuflado na cabine a 18°C, correspondendo a uma leve sensação de frio, e temperatura do ar insuflado pelo sistema personalizado a 24°C com vazão de 3,0 l/s. As partículas simulando uma pessoa espirrando foram injetadas em dois pontos no fundo da cabine, respectivamente, na poltrona próxima da fuselagem e naquela perto do corredor, a 1,10m do piso, que corresponde à região de respiração. A contagem de partículas foi realizada nos assentos da fileira imediatamente à frente do ponto de injeção das partículas, ou seja, na fileira do meio do mock-up, onde se encontra instalado o sistema de ventilação personalizada, respectivamente, na poltrona próxima da fuselagem e naquela perto do corredor. Medições para o mapeamento dos perfis de temperaturas e de velocidades do ar também foram realizadas. Os resultados mostraram que a dispersão de partículas sofre forte influência do sistema de ventilação personalizada e do ponto de injeção de partículas. A quantidade de partículas expiratórias na cabine sempre foi maior quando a injeção foi feita pelo assento junto ao corredor. Isto ocorre devido ao sistema de ventilação por mistura da cabine, com exaustão do ar pela parte inferior próximo da fuselagem. O sistema personalizado avaliado no assento próximo da fuselagem e junto do corredor foi capaz de reduzir, respectivamente, em 40% e 65% a quantidade de partículas expiratórias na zona de respiração dos ocupantes destas poltronas. Adicionalmente, quando o sistema personalizado está funcionando junto ao corredor, a redução das partículas em toda a fileira é de quase 60% em comparação ao sistema personalizado desligado. / Aircraft cabins have been developed in order to make the onboard environment more acceptable and comfortable for their users. In the present work, the influence of a personalized ventilation system installed on the armchair in the dispersion of expiratory particles was studied in a 12-seat mock-up, which reproduces the interior of a commercial aircraft with four seats per row. The tests were performed with inlet air temperature into the cabin at 18°C, corresponding to a slight cold sensation, and inlet air temperature of the customized system at 24°C with a flow rate of 3.0 l/s. Particles simulating a person sneezing were injected at two points in the bottom of the cabin, respectively, in the seat near the fuselage and in the one near the corridor, 1.10m from the floor, which corresponds to the breathing zone. Particle counting was carried out in the row seats immediately in front of the particles\' injection point, i.e. in the middle row of the mock-up, where the custom ventilation system is installed, respectively, in the seat near the fuselage and in that one near the aisle. Measurements for the mapping of temperature and air velocities profiles were also performed. The results showed that the particle dispersion is strongly influenced by the custom ventilation system and the particle injection point. The amount of expiratory particles in the cabin was always greater when the injection was done by the seat near the aisle. This occurs due to the mixing ventilation system of cabin, with air exhaust located nearby the fuselage low part. The personalized ventilation evaluated on the fuselage seat and the aisle seat was able to reduce by 40% and 65%, respectively, the amount of expiratory particles in the breathing zone in these seats. Moreover, when the custom system is working along the corridor, the particle reduction across the row is nearly 60% less compared to the custom system, when it is off.

Developed in the early 1800's, Bulow Plantation is a prime example of the thriving sugar industry of East Florida prior to the Second Seminole War. Additionally, the layout of the slave cabins at Bulow Plantation in an arc centered on the main house is unique in Florida except for Kingsley Plantation near Jacksonville, FL. Despite its importance and the paucity of information available about even basic questions regarding life at Bulow Plantation, relatively little in the way of archaeological work has been done at the site. Using historical research and non-destructive archaeological techniques such as pedestrian survey, aerial LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging), and remote sensing completed as part of recent work by the Alliance for Integrated Spatial Technologies (AIST) (Collins and Doering 2009a; Collins et al 2010) this work examines not only the material landscape of Bulow Plantation but also the social and cognitive landscapes that might have shaped life for both enslaver and enslaved. Using data collected as part of AIST's larger project (Collins et al 2010) an analysis of the pedestrian survey data, as well as a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) created from aerial LiDAR data, revealed the locations of several previously unrecorded slave cabins as well as some large scale landscape features. Although there are three competing theories as to why the Bulow slave cabins were arranged in an arc, without subsurface archaeology it is impossible to endorse one interpretation over another. While the analysis of landscapes generally privileges the view of those in power, suggestions for future archaeological work are made so that the voices of those who were enslaved at Bulow Plantation can begin to be heard.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Auburn University. / Abstract. Vita. Includes bibliographical references (p. 162-171).

Thesis (M.A.)--Carleton University, 2001. / Includes bibliographical references (p. 45-48). Also available in electronic format on the Internet.