Um sistema completo foi desenvolvido para o novo acoplamento de uma célula eletroquímica em fluxo com um eletroforese capilar equipado com detector condutométrico sem contato (EC-CE-C4D). Este acoplamento compreendeu o design da interface EC-CE, um potenciostato protegido contra fuga de alta tensão, subsistema de controle de fluxo por bombas solenóide e um equipamento CE-C4D adaptado para a aplicação. Um software dedicado para aquisição de dados, controle e operação do sistema foi desenvolvido na ferramenta gráfica de programação LabView. O sistema foi inicialmente aplicado na eletrodeposição de traços dos metais Cd2+, Pb2+, Cu2+, Zn2+ e Tl+, seguida pela redissolução e separação destes por CE, o que resultou em fator de pré-concentração de até 55 vezes para todos os metais, exceto Zn2+. Os metais acumulados foram redissolvidos na matriz original da amostra para permitir a separação e determinação conjunta com cátions majoritários (p. ex. alcalinos e alcalinos terrosos e amônio, se acima do LD). Para amostras cuja matriz possa causar interferência, pouco antes da injeção no CE, foi realizado processo de cleanup pela redissolução dos metais no eletrólito de separação. Experimentos pra separação bidimensional com o potencial de deposição ou redissolução voltamétrica como primeira dimensão e o tempo de eletromigração como segunda dimensão foram propostos e demonstrados. A oxidação eletroquímica de espécies orgânicas na interface EC-CE surgiu como um segundo campo de aplicação para: a) derivatização de analitos neutros tornando-os carregados ou ionizaveis, p. ex., conversão de álcoois alifáticos de cadeia curta em carboxilatos que possam ser separados e quantificados por CE-C4D; b) investigação/monitoramento de processos de eletrodo pela detecção de produtos carregados ou ionizáveis de reação de eletrodo, p. ex., investigação de condições experimentais para eletrooxidação de glicerol objetivando-se a síntese de produtos com maior valor comercial. / A complete instrumental system was developed for the new coupling of an electrochemical flow cell to capillary electrophoresis with contactless conductivity detection (EC-CE-C4D) and comprising an innovative design of the EC-CE interface, a potentiostat circuit protected from high voltage leakages, a solenoid pump based flow management subsystem, and a CE-C4D equipment tailored for this application. Dedicated software for data acquisition, devices control and operation automation was developed in LabVIEW graphical programming tool. The system was first applied to the electrodeposition of traces of Cd2+, Pb2+, Cu2+, Zn2+ and Tl+ , followed by stripping and separation by CE, allowing a 55-fold preconcentration factor in 6 min for all metals but Zn2+. The accumulated metals were stripped into the original sample matrix to allow their separation together with the sample\'s major cations (e.g. alkaline and alkaline earth metals and ammonium, if above LOQ). For samples with a matrix that originates interferences, cleanup was achieved by stripping the metals into background electrolyte shortly before injection in the capillary. Two-dimensional separations with voltammetric deposition or stripping potential as one dimension and electromigration time as the second one were proposed and demonstrated. Electrochemical oxidation of organic species in the EC-CE interface emerged as a second field of application for: a) derivatization of neutral analytes into charged or ionizable species, e.g., conversion of short chain aliphatic alcohols into carboxylates that can been determined by CE-C4D; b) investigation/monitoring of electrode processes by detection of charged or ionizable reaction products of electrode reactions, e.g., investigation of experimental conditions for glycerol electro-oxidation aiming the synthesis of commercially valuable products.

O trabalho envolve o desenvolvimento de métodos para análise de alimentos visando a determinação de ácidos fenólicos em frutas, ácido fólico em farinhas enriquecidas e corantes Sudan em produtos de pimenta utilizando eletroforese capilar nos modos de detecção UV e MS. A separação de dez ácidos fenólicos (ácidos clorogênico, siríngico, p-cumárico, benzóico, p-hidroxibenzóico, ferúlico, vanílico, cafeico, gálico e protocatecuico) foi obtida por eletroforese capilar de zona (CZE). Um eletrólito composto de 50 mmol L-1 de tetraborato e 7,5% metanol (v/v) permitiu a separação em linha de base dos dez ácidos fenólicos em menos de 15 minutos. A fim de promover o \"clean-up\", pré-concentração e liberação dos ácidos fenólicos esterificados, um procedimento de extração líquido-líquido seguido pela hidrólise alcalina foi realizado. O método foi validado obtendo-se limites de detecção de 1,63-3,80 &#181g mL-1 e limites de quantificação de 4,95-11,39 &#181g mL-1. O método otimizado foi aplicado para análise de frutas como a abiu-roxo (Chrysophyllum caimito), amora silvestre (Morus nigra L.) e tomate de árvore (Cyphomandra betacea), identificando os ácidos fenólicos na fração livre e hidrolisada. Este trabalho também otimizou o processo de extração e caracterizou a composição de ácidos fenólicos na forma livre e hidrolisada presentes no açaí Juçara (Euterpe precatória Mart.), açaí do Pará (Euterpe oleracea) e em produtos comercias de açaí como polpa congelada e \"açaí na tigela\". Para a determinação do ácido fólico, estudos de pré-concentração online foram realizados. A focalização do ácido fólico foi obtida por CZE e MEKC, devido a fenômenos de isotacoforese transiente. Um método de extração simples baseado na dissolução da farinha em solução de Na2HPO4 seguida de ultrassom e adição de HCl concentrado foi adotado. Entretanto, a detecção do ácido fólico no extrato foi obtida por MEKC com injeção de grande volume de amostra em condições eletroforéticas de 40 mmol L-1 TBS e 30 mmol L-1 SDS, 15 kV a 310 nm. Os limites de detecção e de quantificação atingidos foram de 0,047 e 0,14 µg mL-1, sendo adequados para quantificação do ácido fólico em farinhas de trigo. Um método para determinação de corantes Sudan (I, II, III e IV) em alimentos foi desenvolvido por cromatografia eletrocinética micelar (MEKC) com preenchimento parcial do capilar. A separação dos quatro corantes foi obtida utilizando-se um preenchimento de 25% do capilar (volume total) com eletrólito composto por 40 mmol L-1 NH4HCO3, 25 mmol L-1 SDS e 32,5% ACN (v/v). O restante do capilar foi preenchido com um tampão composto de 40 mmol L-1 NH4HCO3 e 32,5% (v/v) de ACN. Após otimização do método por CE-UV o método foi aplicado para o acoplamento ao CE-MS. Para detecção dos compostos no MS os parâmetros de ionização foram otimizados. A separação em linha de base dos quatro compostos foi obtida em menos de 10 min com limites de detecção de 0,57 a 0,75 µg mL-1 para detecção no UV-Vis e 0,05 a 0,2 µg mL-1 para detecção no MS. O método foi eficaz para a determinação destes corantes adicionados a amostras de molho de tomate e pimenta e chilli em pó / The present work involves the development of methods for food analysis in order to determinate phenolic acids in fruits, folic acid in enriched flour and Sudan dye in chilli products by capillary electrophoresis with UV/Vis and MS detection. The separation of ten phenolic acids (benzoic, caffeic, chlorogenic, p-coumaric, ferulic, gallic, p-hydroxybenzoic, protocatechuic, syringic, and vanillic acid) was obtained by capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE). An electrolyte composed by 50 mmol L-1 of tetraborate and 7,5% methanol (v/v) allowed the baseline resolution of all phenolic acids under investigation in less than 15 min. In order to promote sample clean up, to preconcentrate the phenolic fraction and to release esterified phenolic acids from the fruit matrix, elaborate liquid-liquid extraction procedures followed by alkaline hydrolysis were performed. The proposed method was validated with limits of detection of 1.63-3.80 µg mL-1 and limits of quantification of 4.95-11.39 µg mL-1. The optimized method was applied to evaluation of phenolic contents of abiu-roxo (Chrysophyllum caimito), wild mulberry (Morus nigra L.) and tree tomato (Cyphomandra betacea). This work also optimized the extraction process and characterized the free and hydrolysed forms of phenolic acids in Juçara açaí (Euterpe precatória Mart.), Pará´s açaí (Euterpe oleracea) and commercial products such as frozen pulp and açaí desserts. For the determination of folic acid, on-line preconcentration studies were performed. The focalization of folic acid was obtained by CZE and MEKC by transient isotacophoresis. A simple method of extraction based on dissolution of flour in a Na2HPO4 solution followed by ultrasonication and the addition of concentrated HCl was adopted. However, the detection of folic acid in flour extract was obtained by MEKC with the large volume sample injection with eletrophoretic conditions of 40 mmol L-1 TBS and 30 mmol L-1 SDS, 15 kV and 310 nm. The limits of detection and quantification reached were 0.047 and 0.14 µg mL-1, which are suitable limits to quantify folic acid in enriched wheat flours. A method of Sudan dyes (I, II, III and IV) was developed by micellar electrokinetic chromatography (MEKC) with partial filling technique. Filling 25 % of the capillary with a MEKC solution containing 40 mmol L-1 NH4HCO3, 25 mmol L-1 SDS and 32.5 % ACN (v/v), a baseline separation of the four azo-dyes was obtained. The rest of capillary was filled with 40 mmol L-1 NH4HCO3 and 32.5 % ACN (v/v). After the optimization by CE-UV the method was applied to CE-MS coupling. To detect the compounds in MS the ionization parameters were optimized. The baseline separation of four compounds was obtained in less than 10 min with limit of detection within 0.57 to 0.75 µg mL-1 to UV-Vis detection and 0.05 to 0.2 µg mL-1 to MS detection. The method was efficient in the determination of these dyes spiked in tomato chilli sauces and chilli powder.

No presente trabalho, foram desenvolvidos e validados dois métodos com o objetivo de determinar os herbicidas paraquat e glifosato, bem como o AMPA, principal metabólito do glifosato, em amostras de maconha apreendidas pela polícia de Campinas, São Paulo. A detecção e quantificação de herbicidas na maconha são necessárias e importantes para alertar o real risco que a droga pode oferecer aos usuários. Existem várias razões que explicam a presença de herbicidas na maconha em vários países, incluindo o Brasil. A eletroforese capilar foi utilizada para determinação dos herbicidas. Um método de detecção direta foi usado para determinar o paraquat e outro, com detecção indireta, para determinar o glifosato e AMPA. Os métodos desenvolvidos mostraram boa linearidade, precisão, exatidão e recuperação. Os dados da validação atestam que os métodos podem ser utilizados em laboratórios Forense no Brasil. Cento e trinta amostras foram analisadas, sendo que em doze amostras foram detectadas a presença de paraquat em várias concentrações e ainda três amostras forneceram resultados positivos apenas para o glifosato sendo uma delas, detectado a presença concomitante do AMPA. Os valores dos contaminantes encontrados podem representar um risco ao usuário, fazendo-se necessário novos estudos para delineamento sobre os reais efeitos que esses contaminantes podem apresentar aos usuários de Cannabis. / In the present work, two methods were developed and validate, aiming to determinate the herbicides paraquat and glyphosate and his major metabolite AMPA in seizured marijuana samples by the police in Campinas, São Paulo. The determination of herbicides in confiscated samples is necessary and important to alert the real risk of marijuana can offer to the users. There are many reasons that explain the presence of herbicides in marijuana in several countries, including Brazil. Capillary electrophoresis was used to determinate the studied herbicides. A method with direct detection was used to determinate paraquat and indirect detection to determinate glyphosate and AMPA. The developed methods showed good linearity, precision, accuracy, and recovery. Therefore, it can be applied in Forensics labs in Brazil. One hundred and thirty samples were analyzed, and twelve of them result positive for paraquat in several concentrations and three samples showed positive to glyphosate and one of them, detected the presence of AMPA. The values of the contaminants found, can offer a risk to the users, making it necessary new studies to know the real effects that such contaminants can offer to the Cannabis users.

Uma avaliação da concentração dos aminoácidos primários em amostras de urina de crianças com refluxo vésico-ureteral (VUR) em busca de caminhos para o diagnóstico não invasivo desta doença. Dois métodos analíticos por eletroforese capilar com detecção UV/vis foram desenvolvidos para a quantificação dos analitos. No método 1 empregou-se a detecção UV/vis direta em 200 e 214 nm com as condições eletroforéticas eletrólito tampão fosfato 90 mmol L-1 pH 2,1; tensão de +15 kV; injeção de 7 s a 0,5 psi; capilar de 75 µm de diâmetro interno; 40,2 cm de comprimento total e 30,0 cm de comprimento efetivo. No método 2, fez-se uso da detecção indireta em 254 nm, com as condições eletroforéticas eletrólito tampão TEA 20 mmol L-1 e DNB 10 mmol L-1 pH 10,84; modificador de fluxo DDAB a 4 mmol L-1; tensão de -15 kV; injeção de 7 s a 0,5 psi; capilar de 75 µm de diâmetro interno; 50,2 cm de comprimento total e 40,0 cm de comprimento efetivo. O método 1 apresentou parâmetros de validação linearidade, precisão intra-dia e inter-dia, seletividade, robustez e recuperação satisfatórios. A quantificação de creatinina, fenilalanina (Phe), histidina (His), triptofano (Trp), tirosina (Tyr) nas amostras de urina foi possível pelo método 1, porém inviável para quantificação de arginina (Arg). O método 2 apresentou valores de robustez e recuperação satisfatórios para os aminoácidos alanina (Ala), aspartato (Asp), glutamato (Glu) e glicina (Gly) satisfatórios, mas a quantificação dos mesmos na maioria das amostras de urina diluída não foi possível por estarem em nível de concentração abaixo da detecção ou quantificação. Para avaliar a potencialidade dos resultados como ferramenta no diagnóstico do VUR, os aminoácidos His, Phe, Trp e Tyr, quantificados em todas as amostras, foram empregados como variáveis na classificação das amostras em dois grupos distintos (1) grupo de crianças saudáveis e (2) grupo de crianças diagnosticadas com VUR. A classificação realizada pelo método de análise de componente principal (PCA) apresentou valores estatísticos satisfatórios e poder de predição: R2 (capacidade de ajuste) e Q2 (capacidade de predição) foram 0.9993 e 0.65, respectivamente com os dois componentes principais (PC1 e PC2). A separação total com valor de Q2 desejável (acima de 0,8) poderia ser alcançada com uma quantidade maior de informação, sendo neste caso, número maior de aminoácidos quantificados. Assim, este trabalho abre caminho para estudos mais aprofundados na investigação da concentração dos aminoácidos primários em pacientes com VUR, objetivando o desenvolvimento de um potencial biomarcador para VUR. / An assessment of the concentration of primary amino acids in urine samples from children with vesicoureteral reflux (VUR) using capillary electrophoresis separation with UV/vis detection has been proposed to help establishing a means for non invasive diagnosis of the disease. Two analytical methods were developed. Method 1 used direct UV/vis detection at 200 and 214 nm, 90 mmol L-1 phosphate buffer at pH 2.1, high voltage separation at +15 kV, injection of 0.5 psi during 7 s, and a fused-silica capillary of 75 µm inner diameter, 40.2 cm total length, and 30.0 cm effective length. Method 2 used indirect UV/vis detection at 254 nm, TEA at 20 mmol L-1 and DNB at 10 mmol L-1 electrolyte at pH 10.84, 4 mmol L-1 DDAB as flow modifier, separation voltage at -15 kV, injection of 0,5 psi during 7 s, fused-silica capillary of 75 µm inner diameter, 50.2 cm total length, and 40,0 cm effective length. Method 1 presented satisfactory results for linearity, intra-day and inter-day precision, selectivity, robustness, and recovery. By method 1 it was possible to quantify creatinine, phenylalanine (Phe), histidine (His), tryptophan (Trp), tyrosine (Tyr) but not arginine (Arg) in the urine samples under investigation. Method 2 presented satisfactory robustness and recovery for alanine (Ala), aspartate (Asp), glutamate (Glu) and glycine (Gly), but the contents of these metabolites in the urine samples were not established because they lay below the limits of detection and quantitation. To assess the potentiality of the results as diagnostic tool for VUR condition, the concentrations of the amino acids His, Phe, Trp and Tyr, quantified in all samples, were used as variables in a classification procedure where samples were divided in two distinct groups: (a) a group of healthy children and (b) a group of children diagnosed with VUR. The classification by principal component analysis (PCA) showed a partial separation with good statistics and prediction power: R2 (goodness of fit) and Q2 (goodness of prediction) were 0.9993 and 0.65, respectively with two components analysis (PC1 and PC2). Values of Q2 greater than 0.8 are usually desired and it could be provided if more information was available, such as a greater number of amino acids being quantified. Thus, this research opens the way for further investigative studies of amino acids concentration in patients with primary VUR, aimed at developing a potential biomarker for VUR.

A análise química para a verificação do uso de drogas de abuso vem sendo requisitada com o objetivo de identificar o usuário para que medidas de prevenção e controle possam ser tomadas uma vez que o seu uso está atingindo indivíduos de variadas faixas etárias e camadas sociais. O cabelo é uma matriz biológica interessante de se trabalhar pois não requer cuidados especiais para seu transporte e armazenamento e além disso é de difícil adulteração. O presente projeto de pesquisa teve como objetivo o desenvolvimento de metodologias analíticas altemativas para a separação de 15 opióides, em cabelo, utilizando a eletroforese capilar (CE). Foi desenvolvida uma metodologia de extração inédita para a digestão das amostras de cabelo utilizando-se a extração em fase sólida com cartucho de fase estacionária trocadora de íons (MCX) os extratos obtidos foram analisados via CE utilizando-se com eletrólito de separação tampão fosfato 20 mmol/l, pH 2,5; injeção eletrocinética da amostra (5 s/5 kV); 25 kV durante a análise; detecção em 200 nm e 25°C de temperatura. As análises foram feitas utilizando-se uma coluna capilar de sílica fundida de 75 &#181;m de diâmetro interno, Lt =47 cm e Lefe =40 cm. A metodologia desenvolvida e, especificamente validada para morfina, foi aplicada a um conjunto de 100 amostras da área clínica (cabelo de 35 pacientes sob medicação a base e de morfina). A validação do método proposto para a determinação de morfina em amostras de cabelo apresentou boa linearidade (R > 0,99), valores de limite de detecção e quantificação da ordem de 0,064 mg/L (ou 0,12 ng de morfina/mg de cabelo) e 0,214 mg/L (ou 0,37 ng morfina/mg de cabelo) respectivamente; com precisão e exatidão adequadas (erro relativo < 20%), valores de recuperação média de 81,19 % e com seletividade apropriada e especificidade única testada para 4 principais interferentes (morfina-3&#946;D-glicuronídeo, nalorfina, clonidina e codeína). O nível de morfina nas amostras de cabelo provenientes dos pacientes selecionados (pacientes do Grupo da Dor do Hospital das Clínicas da Universidade de São Paulo - HCFMUSP) variou de 1,3 a 18,4 ng de morfina/mg de cabelo. Além disso, foram otimizadas 2 separações de misturas de opióides um envolvendo os principiais opióides utilizados em clínica médica e outra contendo esses mesmos opiáceos acrescida de seus metabólitos. A primeira mistura de padrões foi separada utilizando-se tampão fosfato 20 mmol/L, pH 2,5. A segunda mistura de padrões foi separada utilizando-se tampão fosfato 60 mmol/L, pH 2,5 contendo 8 mmol/L &#946;-ciclodextrina + 4% metanol. / This work describes a series of studies aiming at the determination of opiates of clinical and forense importance using hair as an alternative biological matrix and capillary electrophoresis (CE) as the technique of choice. Electrolyte compositions were criteriously explored using CE in its diverse modes of operation and the separation of 15 opiates and metabolites (petidine, morphine, tramadol, naloxone, phentanyl citrate, alphentanil HCl, suphentanyl citrate, 6-acetylmorphine, pentazocine, nalorphine, codeine, 6-acetylcodeine, methadone, morphine-3&#946;-D-glucuronide, norphentanyl) was accomplished in less than 14 min using as electrolyte, phosphate buffer 60 mmol/L, pH 2.5 with 8 mmol/L &#946;-ciclodextrine and 8 % methanol in the conditions: inj. 5 s/10 kV, 30 kV during analysis, detection 200nm and 20 &#176;C. Additionally, a comparative evaluation of the strategies for hair extraction and pre-concentration of opiates to contemplate the concentration sensitivity restrains of capillary electrophoresis have been investigated. Recoveries of target analytes (petidine, naloxone, tramadol, fentanyl, alfentanyl and sufentanyl) using liquid-Iiquid extraction and solid-phase extraction employing a variety of solvents and stationary phases were estimated. A novel, simple and reliable strategy for digestion and extraction of morphine in hair was developed based upon acidic hydrolysis (45°C, 12 h) followed by solid-phase extraction in ion-exchange resin cartridges (MCX, Supelco). Recoveries of morphine up to 81.4% were obtained with this procedure. Hair extraets were analyzed via CE using 20 mmol/L phosphate buffer at pH 2.5, electrokinetie injection (5 kV, 5 s), 25 kV applied voltage, detection at 200 nm in a eapillary with dimensions 75 &#181;m i.d., 47 em totallength and 40 em effective length. lhe methodology was validated with respect to precision (CV < 20 %), aecuraey (relative error < 20 %), linearity (r > 0.99), limit of detection and quantifieation, 0.064 mg/L (0.12 ng of morphine per mg of hair) and 0.214 mg/L (0.37 ng of morphine per mg of hair), respectively, with appropriate selectivity and specificity, tested for four major interfering eompounds (morphine-3&#946;D-glucuronide, nalorphine, clonidine and codeine). Hair analyses of over 100 samples from c.a. 35 patients (Grupo da Dor, Hospital das Clínicas, Universidade de São Paulo, HC-FMUSP) suffering from radieular or medullar lesion, receiving morphine by implantable intrathecal systems were eondueted. Levels of morphine in the patients hair was found in the range of 1.3-18.4 ng/mg.

Diagnostiquer précocement les maladies est un défi à relever pour améliorer la prise en charge des patients concernés et leur offrir une meilleure qualité de vie. Les analyses 'omiques', qui quantifient globalement, simultanément et sans a priori l'abondance de milliers de molécules dans les liquides biologiques, s'avèrent très prometteuses pour l'identification de biomarqueurs précoces des maladies complexes. Dans ce contexte, mon travail de thèse avait pour objectif de développer des outils de diagnostics, à partir d'analyses du peptidome et métabolome urinaire, pour détecter précocement la présence d'une maladie rénale chronique (MRC) et la survenue de ses complications cardiovasculaires. La première étude, insérée dans le projet européen 4C (Cardiovascular Complications in Children with Chronic kidney disease), s'est centrée sur les complications cardiovasculaires associées à la MRC en pédiatrie. Ces complications constituent la principale cause de mortalité des enfants en insuffisance rénale, et leur diagnostic précoce est impossible à ce jour. En analysant par électrophorèse capillaire couplée à la spectrométrie de masse (CE-MS) le peptidome urinaire de 86 enfants souffrant, ou non, de complications cardiovasculaires secondaires à la MRC, nous avons identifié des peptides qui permettent de prédire à l'avance les patients à haut risque cardiovasculaire : 190 peptides étaient associés à l'épaississement de la paroi carotidienne (AUC 0.87, sensibilité 80%, spécificité 100%) et 22 peptides prédisaient l'augmentation de la rigidité artérielle (AUC 0.83, sensibilité 83%, spécificité 70%). Le second projet relevait de la médecine vétérinaire. Dans cette étude menée sur 50 chiens avec et sans MRC, nous avons caractérisé pour la première fois le peptidome urinaire canin via la technologie CE-MS et nous avons découvert 133 peptides urinaires associés à la MRC. Ces derniers ont permis de diagnostiquer la présence d'une MRC dans 80% des chiens. Les métabolites sont mieux corrélés au phénotype que les autres strates moléculaires. Cependant l'apport de la métabolomique en clinique est encore limité, dû au manque de technologies analytiques performantes. Le troisième objectif de ma thèse était donc de mettre au point une procédure de dosage par CE-MS des métabolites urinaires. Grâce à une méthode unique de normalisation interne, basée sur l'utilisation de métabolites endogènes stables, il est maintenant possible d'analyser le contenu en métabolites d'un même échantillon urinaire avec une très haute reproductibilité sur le long terme (4 ans). Comme preuve de concept, nous avons mis en évidence, via cette procédure, la présence d'une combinaison de 32 métabolites dans l'urine qui permet de repérer avec une sensibilité de 76% et une spécificité de 86% les nouveau-nés porteurs d'une malformation rénale obstructive. Enfin, la quatrième problématique s'inscrivait dans une démarche translationnelle. Son but était de développer des aptasenseurs capables de détecter avec de hautes affinités et spécificités les biomarqueurs d'origine omique, pour un diagnostic simple, rapide et à moindre coût. La cible choisie était un fragment urinaire de l'alpha-1-antitrypsine, qui est ~1000 fois plus abondant chez les adultes atteints de MRC que les chez les sains. La sélection de l'aptasenseur s'est faite par le Systematic Evolution of Ligands by EXponential enrichment (SELEX). Nous présentons ici les travaux préliminaires de la mise au point du SELEX sur cette cible. En conclusion, cette thèse démontre le potentiel de l'analyse du contenu urinaire en peptides et métabolites pour le diagnostic précoce des pathologies complexes telles que la MRC et les complications cardiovasculaires associées. De plus l'obtention d'aptasenseurs dirigés contre ces biomarqueurs précoces et utilisables au chevet du patient devrait révolutionner dans le futur les méthodes diagnostiques. / Early diagnosis of diseases is a big challenge to improve patients' health and quality of life. 'Omics' analyses, which allow the global and simultaneous quantification of the relative abundance of thousands of molecules in biological fluids are promising for the identification of early biomarkers of complex diseases. In this context, the objective of my thesis was to develop diagnostic tools, based on urinary peptidome and metabolome analyses, for the early detection of chronic kidney disease (CKD) and associated cardiovascular complications. The first study, as part of the 4C European project (Cardiovascular Complications in Children with Chronic kidney disease), focused on analyzing the cardiovascular complications associated to CKD in children. These complications are the main cause of mortality in children with CKD and their early diagnosis is impossible for now. Analysis of the urinary peptidome of 86 children with or without cardiovascular complications associated to CKD by capillary electrophoresis coupled to mass spectrometry (CE-MS), led to the identification of two sets of peptides for the early prediction of high cardiovascular risk in pediatric patients: 190 peptides were associated to an increase of the carotid intima-media thickness (AUC 0.87, sensitivity 80%, specificity 100%) and 22 peptides were associated to an increase in arterial stiffness (AUC 0.83, sensitivity 83%, specificity 70%). The second study falls in the field of veterinary medicine. In this study, carried out on 50 dogs with or without CKD, we analyzed for the first time the canine urinary peptidome using the CE-MS technology. We identified 133 urinary peptides associated to CKD allowing an accurate diagnosis of CKD in 80% of the dogs. Metabolites correlate best to phenotype compared to other molecular traits. However, the use of metabolomics for identification of clinically relevant biomarkers is very limited due to the lack of high-performance analytical technologies. The third part of my thesis was to develop a procedure for the quantification of urinary metabolites by CE-MS. Using a unique method of internal normalization based on endogenous and stable metabolites, we can now analyze the metabolite content of the same urine sample with a high reproducibility over the long-term (4 years). As a proof-of-concept, we demonstrated that this developed procedure led to the identification of a set of 32 urinary metabolites that allow the early identification of newborns with an obstructive kidney anomaly with a sensitivity of 76% and a specificity of 86%. Finally, the fourth study was dedicated to improving translational research. The aim was to develop aptasensors able to detect 'omics'-identified biomarkers with a high affinity and specificity to obtain a simple, rapid and low-cost diagnostic test. The biomarker chosen as target is a urinary fragment of alpha-1-antitrypsin, which is ~1000 more abundant in adults with CKD compared to healthy subjects. Aptasensors were selected by the Systematic Evolution of Ligands by EXponential enrichment (SELEX). Here we present preliminary work on the development of the SELEX for our target. In conclusion, this thesis shows the strength of the urinary content, in terms of peptides and metabolites, for the early diagnosis of complex pathologies like CKD and the associated cardiovascular complications. Moreover, the selection of aptasensors targeting these early biomarkers and that can be used at bedside, will revolutionize future diagnostic methods.

<p>Oxidative stress can be defined as a state of disturbance in the pro-oxidant/antioxidant balance in favour of the former, leading to potential damage. Processes associated with oxidative stress involve reactive oxygen species and radicals and can result in elevated levels of oxidatively modified or toxic molecules that can cause cellular malfunction, and even cell death. Destruction of membrane lipids, lipid peroxidation, caused by reactive oxygen species and radicals has been coupled to many diseases and also normal ageing. </p><p>The measurement of low molecular weight biomarkers of oxidative stress present in complex matrices such as brain tissue, plasma, urine or cerebrospinal fluid is a delicate and difficult task and there is a need for improved analytical tools in this field of research. </p><p>The major foci of this thesis and the work underlying it are the development of analytical techniques and methods for determining biomarkers for oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation. Aspects of particular concern include the effects of sample treatments prior to analysis, evaluation of the developed methods with respect to possible artefacts, and the scope for results to be misinterpreted. The specific research goals and issues addressed are detailed in five papers, which this thesis is based upon.</p><p><b>Paper I</b> focuses on malondialdehyde, describing and evaluating two new simplified sample pre-treatment regimes for the determination of malondialdehyde in rat brain tissue by capillary electrophoresis with UV detection. The effects of sample storing and handling are also considered.</p><p><b>Paper II</b> describes the synthesis, characterization and implementation of a new internal standard for the determination of malondialdehyde in biological samples using electrophoretic or chromatographic separation techniques. The usefulness of the internal standard is demonstrated in analyses of rat brain tissue samples.</p><p><b>Paper III</b> presents a method for the determination of 4-hydroxynon-2-enal in brain tissue from rats employing micellar electrokinetic chromatography separation and laser-induced fluorescence detection. </p><p><b>Paper IV</b> is focused on the development of a new methodology for determining the stereoisomeric F2-isoprostanes in human urine samples employing chromatographic separation on porous graphitic carbon and detection by electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry. The results from this study conflict with the hypothesis that peripheral isoprostanes are elevated in patients with Alzheimer’s disease.</p><p><b>Paper V</b> describes porous graphitic carbon chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry for the determination of isoprostanes in human cerebrospinal fluid. A new simplified sample pre-treatment regime, involving a column switching technique, is presented that allows direct injection of a relatively large volume of CSF into the chromatographic system.</p>

<p>Infrared absorption spectra can provide analytically useful information on a large variety of compounds, ranging from small ions to large biological molecules. In fact, all analytes that possess a dipole moment that changes during vibration are infrared-active. The infrared (IR) spectrum can be subdivided into far-, mid- and near- regions. The focus of attention in this thesis is the mid-IR region, in which the fundamental vibrations of most organic compounds are located, thus providing scope for positive structural identification. However, while such near-ubiquitous signals can be very useful for monitoring simple molecules in simple systems, they can be increasingly disadvantageous as the number of analytes and/or the complexity of the sample matrix increases. Thus, hyphenation to a separation system prior to detection is desirable. Paper I appended to this thesis presents (for the first time) the on-line hyphenation between Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, FTIR, and capillary zone electrophoresis, CZE. CZE is a highly efficient separation technique that separates ionic analytes with respect to their charge-to-size ratio. It is most commonly performed in aqueous buffers in fused silica capillaries. Since these capillaries absorb virtually all infrared light an IR-transparent flow cell had to be developed. In further studies (Paper II) the applicability of CZE is expanded to include neutral analytes by the addition of micelles to the buffer, and micellar electrokinetic chromatography, MEKC, was successfully hyphenated to FTIR for the first time. Paper III describes an application of the on-line CZE-FTIR technique in which non-UV-absorbing analytes in a complex matrix were separated, identified and quantified in one run.</p><p>Measuring aqueous solutions in the mid-IR region is not straightforward since water absorbs intensely in this region, sometimes completely, leaving no transmitted, detectable light. For this reason, quantum cascade lasers are interesting. These lasers represent a new type of mid-IR semiconducting lasers with high output power due to their ingenious design. The laser action lies within one conduction band (intersubband) and can be tailored to emit light in the entire mid-IR region using the same semiconducting material. To investigate their potential to increase the optical path length in aqueous solutions, these lasers were used with an aqueous flow system (Paper IV), and the experience gained in these experiments enabled hyphenation of such lasers to a CZE system (Paper V).</p>

<p>The thesis focuses on the development of new homogeneous gels for the separation of drug enantiomers, peptides, DNA and virus by electrophoresis and electrochromatography in capillaries and microchips. This type of separation media offers high resolution and small zone broadening. Compared to particulate beds the resolution in this type of separation media is high because the eddy diffusion is zero and the resistance to mass transfer is small, since the diffusional distance between two polymer chains in the gel is considerably shorter than that between two beads in a packed bed.</p><p>The gels have been characterized in terms of plate heights, plate numbers, resolution, etc. Gels of agarose, polyvinyl alcohol, albumin and polyacrylamide have been employed for electrochromatography or electrophoresis. <i>N,N’</i>-methylene-bisacrylamide, the most widely used crosslinker in polyacrylamide gels, was exchanged for allyl-β-cyclodextrin to get a multi-purpose gel, <i>i.e.,</i> a separation medium the separation properties of which is determined not only by the polyacrylamide chains, but also by β-cyclodextrin with its complexation power.</p><p>A cost-effective, hybrid microdevice has been designed for fast electrophoretic and electrochromatographic analyses as well as for microchromatography. It consists of a fused silica capillary mounted on a supporting plate which integrates most of the compartments necessary for automation and sensitive detection at short UV wavelengths.</p>

<p>The combination of capillary electrophoresis (CE) and mass spectrometry (MS) constitutes a powerful microanalytical system in the fields of biology, medicine and chemistry. This thesis describes the development of three novel capillary coatings and demonstrates how these extend the utility of CE as a high-efficiency separation technique in protein analysis and biopharmaceutical drug screening.</p><p>Due to the rapidly growing interest in characterizing the human proteome, there is an increased need for rapid protein separations. The use of CE in protein analysis is, however, nontrivial due to problems with protein adsorption to the fused-silica capillary walls. In this thesis, this problem was addressed by developing two novel, physically adsorbed, cationic polymer surface coatings, denoted PolyE-323 and Q-agarose. By using simple rinsing protocols, highly reproducible coatings, stable over a wide range of pH 2-11 were generated. Successful protein separations using cationic-coated capillaries in CE-MS, equipped with either electrospray ionization (ESI) or matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI), has been demonstrated.</p><p>In the pharmaceutical industry, favorable pharmacokinetic properties of a candidate drug, such as high bioavailability after oral administration, are crucial for a high success rate in clinical development. Tools for prediction of biopharmaceutically relevant drug properties are important in order to identify and discard poor candidate drugs as soon as possible. In this thesis, a membrane mimetic coating was developed by electrostatically immobilizing liposomes to the capillary wall, via an anchoring sublayer of Q-agarose. The liposome-coated capillaries were demonstrated in on-line CE-MS for prediction of drug membrane permeability.</p>