Emulsões são sistemas formados quando dois componentes imiscíveis são misturados, na forma de gotículas dispersas numa fase contínua, estabilizados pela ação de emulsificantes, compostos anfifílicos, com afinidades por ambas as fases do sistema. No caso de emulsões de Pickering, o sistema é estabilizado por partículas coloidais sólidas, que adsorvem à interface das gotículas da emulsão. O objetivo desta dissertação foi produzir e caracterizar suspensões de celulose cristalina (CC), celulose amorfa (CA) e de partículas de quitosana (PQ) e avaliar seu potencial de aplicação como únicos compostos estabilizantes em emulsões óleo-em-água. As CC e CA foram produzidas por tratamentos térmico e ácido de celulose microcristalina, respectivamente, enquanto que as PQs foram produzidas por tratamento ácido de quitosana de média massa molecular. Em todos esses casos, os tratamentos foram seguidos de ultra-agitação: 0 (ST), 10000 (UT10), 15000 (UT15) ou 20000 rpm (UT20) por 3 minutos. As suspensões de CC, CA e PQ foram caracterizadas para determinação da distribuição do tamanho de partículas, do potencial zeta e da estabilidade física, e por microscopia eletrônica de varredura e/ou de força atômica. As partículas em pó, produzidas por liofilização, foram submetidas a análises de difração de raios-X, espectroscopia de infravermelho com Transformada de Fourier (FTIR) e de colorimetria instrumental. Em função dessas caracterizações, foi estudado o efeito do tipo de partícula estabilizadora (CC, CA ou PQ) sobre o tamanho de gotas, colorimetria instrumental e estabilidade física de emulsões com 20% (v/v) de óleo de soja, sem e com β-caroteno. Observou-se que os tratamentos UT10, UT15 e UT20 provocaram importantes alterações na distribuição de tamanho de partículas, com redução do tamanho médio das partículas, sem efeito significativo da velocidade de agitação. Em relação à PQ, os tratamentos por ultra-agitação não influenciaram o tamanho de partículas, nem quando comparado com suspensões ST. A CC apresentou-se em fragmentos de fibras celulósicas e altamente instáveis em suspensão, com índices de instabilidade próximos a 0,78. A CA apresentou-se em partículas coloidais e agregados irregulares, com estabilidade física razoável em suspensão (0,26). As suspensões de PQ apresentaram grandes estruturas cristalinas de acetato de sódio, junto a partículas coloidais de quitosana, mas altamente estáveis em suspensão aquosa (0,04). De forma geral, o potencial ζ e a estabilidade física das suspensões de CC, CA e PQ não variaram com o tratamento (ST, UT10, UT15 e UT20). Na caracterização das partículas liofilizadas, constatou-se alto índice de cristalinidade da CC (81%), e baixa cristalinidade da CA (42%) e da PQ (40%). Os tratamentos não provocaram modificações consideráveis na estrutura química, analisada por FTIR, e nem na cor instrumental da CC, CA e PQ. Por fim, apenas a PQ foi capaz de produzir e estabilizar emulsões óleo-em-água, não havendo formação de fase creme durante o armazenamento. A adição de 0,005% de β-caroteno à fase lipídica deixou as emulsões estabilizadas por PQ ligeiramente alaranjadas e aumentou sua estabilidade física, sem afetar o tamanho médio de suas gotas (29-32 µm). Portanto, apenas a PQ demonstrou potencial para estabilizar emulsões óleo-em-água, com ou sem β-caroteno. / Emulsions are systems formed when two immiscible components are mixed, presenting dispersed droplets in a continuous phase, stabilized by emulsifiers, amphiphilic compounds, with affinities for both phases of the system. In the case of Pickering emulsions, the system is stabilized by solid colloidal particles, which adsorb at the interface of the emulsion droplets. The objective of this dissertation was to produce and characterize suspensions of crystalline cellulose (CC), amorphous cellulose (CA) and chitosan particles (PQ) and to evaluate its potential as single stabilizing compounds in oil-in-water emulsions. CC and CA were produced by heat and acidic treatments of microcrystalline cellulose, respectively, whereas PQs were produced by acidic treatment of medium molecular weight chitosan, also followed by ultra-stirring treatment. In all cases, the treatments were followed by ultra-stirring: 0 (ST); 10,000 (UT10); 15,000 (UT15) or 20,000 rpm (UT20) for 3 minutes. The suspensions of CC, CA and PQ were characterized for determination of particle size distribution, zeta potential and physical stability, and by scanning electron microscopy and/or atomic force microscopy. The powder particles, produced by freeze-drying, were subjected to analysis by X-ray diffraction, Fourier Transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and instrumental colorimetry. As a function of these characterizations, the effect of the stabilizing particle type (CC, CA or PQ) on droplet size, instrumental colorimetry and physical stability of emulsions with 20% (v/v) soybean oil, without and with β-carotene was studied. It was observed that the treatments UT10, UT15 and UT20 caused important changes in the particle size distribution, with reduction of the mean particle size, without significant effect of the agitation speed. Regarding chitosan particles, ultra-stirring treatments did not influence particle size, neither when compared to suspensions without pretreatment. CC was presented as highly unstable cellulosic fiber fragments in suspension, with instability indexes close to 0.78. CA was presented in colloidal particles and irregular aggregates, with reasonable physical stability in suspension (0.26). The suspensions of PQ showed large crystalline structures of sodium acetate, together with colloidal chitosan particles, but highly stable in aqueous suspension (0.04). In general, the potential ζ and the physical stability of CC, CA and PQ suspensions did not change with the treatment (ST, UT10, UT15 and UT20). In the characterization of the freezedried particles, a high crystallinity index of CC (81%) was observed, whereas CA (42%) and PQ (40%) showed low crystallinities. The treatments neither caused significant changes in the chemical structure, analyzed by FTIR, nor in the instrumental color of CC, CA and PQ. Finally, only PQ was able to produce and stabilize oil-in-water emulsions, with no cream phase formation during storage. Addition of 0.005% β-carotene to the oil phase left the emulsions stabilized by PQ slightly orange and increased the physical stability of the emulsions, without affecting the droplet size of the emulsions (29-32 µm). Therefore, only PQ demonstrated the potential to stabilize oil-in-water emulsions, with or without β-carotene.

Submitted by Rosivalda Pereira (mrs.pereira@ufma.br) on 2017-06-06T19:33:29Z No. of bitstreams: 1 EdvanMoreira.pdf: 4583939 bytes, checksum: 5ab3a481fd56c037eec7e3edec77e8b9 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-06-06T19:33:29Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 EdvanMoreira.pdf: 4583939 bytes, checksum: 5ab3a481fd56c037eec7e3edec77e8b9 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2008-03-31 / Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa e ao Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico do Maranhão (FAPEMA) / From its discovery, the nanotubes of carbon are seen as material’s highly promising for a lot of applications. The combination of nanotubes of carbon with other molecules is the most general form of modifying their properties. New methods to control and to tune these properties are necessary for the developing of their potentials applications. The functionalization has been proposed as one of the processes capable to modify the optical properties of the nanotubes of carbon, through chemical reaction ”it is arrested”another molecule in the surface of the nanotube. However, another more elegant form of functionalization is through the encapsulation of molecules inside the nanotube. Recently, the encapsulation of the molecule of the beta-carotene experimentally in nanotubes of carbon was accomplished and changes were verified in the absorption spectrum. In this work we performed simulations of molecular dynamics using field of similar universal force to test the encapsulation of the beta-carotene, and calculations of Electronic Structure to verify charge transference. The obtained results of the molecular dynamics confirm that the encapsulation of the -carotene happens in the three cases studied experimentally by Yanagi and collaborators. / Desde sua descoberta, os nanotubos de carbono são vistos como um material altamente promissor para muitas aplicações. A combinação de nanotubos de carbono com outra molécula é a forma mais geral de se modificar suas propriedades. Novos métodos para controlar e sintonizar estas propriedades são necessários afim de se desenvolver suas potenciais aplicações. A funcionalização tem sido proposta como um dos processos capaz de se modificar as propriedades ópticas dos nanotubos de carbono, através de reação química ”prende-se”a outra molécula na superfície do nanotubo. Entretanto, uma outra forma mais elegante de funcionalização se dá através do encapsulamento de moléculas no interior do nanotubo. Recentemente, foi realizado experimentalmente o encapsulamento da molécula do beta-caroteno em nanotubos de carbono e foram constatadas mudanças no espectro de absorção. Neste trabalho realizamos simulações de dinâmica molecular usando campo de força universal afim de verificar se o encapsulamento do beta-caroteno ocorre, e cálculos de Estrutura Eletrônica para verificar se há ou não transferências de carga no sistema. Os resultados obtidos da dinâmica molecular confirmam que o encapsulamento do beta-caroteno ocorre nos 3 casos reportados experimentalmente por Yanagi e colaboradores.

A combinação do aumento da população mundial e a melhoria nos padrões de vida estão levando a uma maior demanda por alimentos com alto valor nutricional. As variedades de laranjas de polpa vermelha são as únicas laranjas que acumulam licopeno na polpa e no suco. O licopeno é um carotenóide considerado como um composto antioxidante, com ação potencial na prevenção de alguns tipos de câncer. Apesar do valor nutricional agregado as laranjas de polpa vermelha, a caracterização fisiológica e molecular dos carotenóides nessas laranjas permanece pouco estudada. O objetivo deste trabalho foi caracterizar o perfil de transcrição de genes envolvidos na via de biossíntese dos carotenóides e quantificar a concentração dos carotenóides na polpa dos frutos de duas laranjas de polpa vermelha e da laranja Pêra (controle). Para comparação entre variedades, os frutos das laranjas Sanguínea-de-Mombuca (\'SM\') e Bahia Cara-Cara (\'CC\'), que possuem polpa vermelha, e da laranja Pêra (\'P\') foram colhidos aos 270, 300 e 330 dias após o florescimento (DAF), em Cordeirópolis (CCSM). Para identificar a influência climática no acúmulo de carotenóides, frutos da laranja de polpa vermelha \'SM\' foram também colhidos frutos aos 270, 300 e 330 DAF em diversos locais: CCSM, Mogi-Mirim (MM) e São Bento do Sapucaí (SBS). A quantidade dos transcritos dos genes fitoeno sintase (PSY), fitoeno dessaturase (PDS), \'dzeta\'-caroteno dessaturase (ZDS), carotenóide isomerase (CRTISO), licopeno \'épsilon\'-ciclase (LCY\'\'épsilon\'), licopeno \'beta\'-ciclase (LCY\'beta\'), hidroxilase \'beta\'-caroteno (HY\'beta\') e zeaxantina epoxidase (ZEP), que codificam para as enzimas da via de biossíntese dos carotenóides, foram analisados por PCR em tempo real. A quantificação dos principais carotenóides presentes no suco dos frutos foi realizada por meio de cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência. A análise quantitativa de transcritos obtidos a 330 DAF indicaram a existência de maiores níveis de expressão dos genes precursores dos carotenos (PSY, PDS, CRTISO, ZDS, LCY\'beta\') nas variedades de polpa vermelha, principalmente na \'SM\'. A quantidade dos carotenos fitoflueno, licopeno e \'beta\'-caroteno foram maiores nas laranjas vermelhas, em relação ao observado nos frutos de laranja Pêra, correlacionando com os níveis de expressão gênica. Nos frutos da laranja pigmentada \'SM\' coletadas aos 330 DAF pôde-se observar uma possível associação entre o clima do local de cultivo e o conteúdo de transcritos dos genes da via de carotenóides. O cultivo em clima mais quente (MM) resultou em frutos com maiores níveis de transcritos dos genes precursores de carotenos (PSY, PDS, ZDS, CRTISO e LCY\'beta\'), enquanto que o cultivo em região de clima mais frio (SBS) resultou no aumento do nível de transcritos dos genes precursores das xantofilas (HY\'beta\' e ZEP). Como consequência, houve um acúmulo maior dos carotenos fitoflueno, licopeno e \'beta\'-caroteno, nos frutos cultivados em locais quentes, porém, em regiões mais frias, houve maior acúmulo das xantofilas zeaxantina e violaxantina, nos frutos. Com o sequenciamento das regiões de diferentes genes da via de biossíntese de carotenóides, foram identificadas algumas mutações pontuais na sequência de nucleotídeos dos genes PSY, CRTISO e ZDS da variedade pigmentada \'SM\', em comparação com os mesmos genes da laranja Pêra. Algumas dessas mutações resultaram na alteração de aminoácidos na sequência das proteínas e deste modo, supõe-se que estes genes sejam os principais candidatos a serem os responsáveis pela alteração do fenótipo das variedades que produzem frutos com polpa avermelhada, ricos em licopeno / The increasing world population and improvement in living standards are leading to greater demand for foods with high nutritional value. The sweet orange varieties with red-flesh are the only ones that accumulate lycopene in the pulp and juice. Lycopene is a carotenoid compound with antioxidative property which may have a potential action in preventing some cancers. Despite of the high nutritional value in the red-fleshed oranges, the physiological and molecular characterization of carotenoids remains to be elucidated. The present work aimed to characterize the transcriptional profile of genes involved in carotenoids biosynthesis pathway and quantify the carotenoids in red-fleshed oranges and Pêra orange (as a control). For a direct comparison among the varieties, fruits of Sanguínea-de-Mombuca (\'SM\') and Bahia Cara-Cara (\'CC\') red-fleshed sweet oranges, and Pêra orange were harvested at 270, 300 and 330 days after flowering (DAF) in Cordeirópolis station (CCSM). To investigate the impact of climate variation on carotenoids accumulation, red-fleshed fruits \'SM\' orange were harvested on 270, 300 and 330 DAF in different climate locations: Cordeirópolis station (CCSM), Mogi-Mirim (MM) and São Bento do Sapucaí (SBS). Quantitative transcriptional analysis of the genes phytoene syntase (PSY), phytoene desaturase (PDS), \'dzeta\'-carotene desaturase (ZDS), carotenoid isomerase (CRTISO), lycopene \'épsilon\'-ciclase (LCY\'épsilon\'), lycopene \'beta\'-cyclase (LCY\'beta\'), hydroxylase \'beta\'-carotene (HY\'beta\') and zeaxanthin epoxidase (ZEP) related to the carotenoids biosynthesis pathway were performed by quantitative Real Time PCR. Further, carotenoids quantification in red-fleshed fruits was measured by high performance liquid chromatography. The transcriptional profile at 330 DAF revealed high expression levels for the carotene gene precursors (PSY, PDS, CRTISO, ZDS, LCY\'beta\') in red-fleshed oranges, in particular to \'SM\' orange when compared to Pêra orange. Carotenoids profiling displayed higher phytofluene, lycopene and \'beta\'-carotene concentrations in red-fleshed orange than Pêra orange fruits. Transcript levels of genes related to the carotenoids pathway were responsive to the climate variation in red-fleshed orange harvested at 330 DAF. In warmer climate conditions, increased expression levels were found for the genes related carotene precursors (PSY, PDS, ZDS, CRTISO and LCY\'beta\'), whereas under colder climate conditions, the red-fleshed fruits orange showed higher expression levels for the xanthophylls precursors genes (HY\'beta\' e ZEP). As a consequence, the carotenes phytofluene, lycopene and \'beta\'-carotene accumulated in warmer climate developed fruits, instead of colder climate conditions, where the fruits accumulate increased concentrations of xanthophylls such as zeaxanthin and violaxanthin. Moreover, the sequencing of fragments from different genes related to the carotenoids pathway enabled the identification of point mutations for the genes PSY, CRTISO and ZDS in the red-fleshed variety. These mutations caused amino acid changes in the protein which indicates that these genes might be responsible for the phenotypes red-fleshed fruits and increased lycopene levels shown in the variety \'SM\'

Brazil is the country with the greatest biodiversity on the planet and a major producer of food. Tropical fruits, especially natives from Brazil, may contain considerable amounts of carotenoids that have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, provitamin A and anticancer actions, such as β-carotene and lycopene. The food structure design concept aims to manipulate the food matrix for specific purposes, e.g. the preservation and manipulation of carotenoid bioaccessibility. The aim of this thesis was to explore tropical fruits, native and exotic from Brazil in the development of delivery systems for carotenoids. A screening step was carried out with 11 fruits, among which 2 were selected, the pitanga (Eugenia uniflora) and buriti (Mauritia flexuosa) fruits that were used for the production of microemulsions. At the screening were evaluated the proximate composition, fiber contents, carotenoid profiles and bioacessibilities. The nutritional value demonstrated that these fruits have high potential as raw-materials for healthy products due to their high fiber, minerals and carotenoid contents in addition to low energy value. Analysis by HPLC-DAD allowed the identification of 14 carotenoids in the 11 fruits studied for the screening. Results demonstrated the superiority of the bioaccessibility of xanthophylls (ranging 10 % - 52 %) in relation to carotenes, and the low bioaccessibility of lycopene from pitanga (1.1 %) and average bioaccessibility of β-carotene from buriti (26 %). Pitanga and buriti had their carotenoid profiles analyzed and monitored throughout an in vitro simulation of the digestion coupled with caco-2 cell cultures. Although xanthophylls are more bioaccessible, the intestinal ephitelium absorb preferentially the provitamin A carotenoids, such β-carotene and β-criptoxanthin. In order to produce these microemulsions, high-speed homogenization (HSH) and ultrasound (US) were studied in combination with the use of surfactants (Whey Protein Isolate and Tween 80), and addition of corn oil as carotenoid carrier. The experiments have shown that the interaction of US and HSH is capable to break cell walls and release carotenoids with higher efficiency. Optical and fluorescence microscopy, as well as carotenoid analysis demonstrated that it was possible to manipulate the food matrix structure releasing the carotenoids from the plant cells and encapsulating them inside the oil droplets, what increased their retention after processing. The microemulsion were affected by time of processing and by surfactant related to their rheology, final structure, stability of emulsion and carotenoid stability to processing. Finally, a dynamic gastrointestinal system was used to compare the behavior of carotenoids from whole fruit pulps and selected microemulsions (2% Tween 80, 5% corn oil, processed by HSH-US 4 min -4 min). The results demonstrated that it was possible to increase the stability to digestion and bioaccessibility of total carotenoids, lycopene and β-carotene from the microemulsions. / O Brasil é o país detentor da maior biodiversidade do planeta e um grande produtor de alimentos. Frutas tropicais, em especial as nativas brasileiras, podem conter quantidades consideráveis de carotenoides que possuem ação antioxidante, anti-inflamatória, provitamina A e anticâncer, como β-caroteno e licopeno. O desenho estrutural dos alimentos (food structure design), visa manipular a matriz alimentar com fins específicos, por exemplo, a preservação e manipulação da bioacessibilidade de carotenoides. Na presente tese buscou-se explorar frutas brasileiras não-convencionais no desenvolvimento de sistemas de entrega de carotenoides. Foi realizada uma etapa de triagem com 11 frutas, dentre as quais, 2 foram selecionadas, a pitanga (Eugenia uniflora) e o buriti (Mauritia flexuosa), e utilizadas na produção de microemulsões. Nesta triagem foram avaliadas a composição centesimal, o teor de fibras, o perfil de carotenoides e a bioacessibilidade destes carotenoides. O valor nutricional das frutas demonstrou seu potencial para utilização em produtos saudáveis, devido a seus teores eleveados de fibras, minerais e carotenoides além do baixo teor calórico. A análise por HPLC-DAD permitiu identificar até 14 carotenoides nas amostras das 11 frutas estudadas na triagem. O estudo da bioacessibilidade dos carotenoides das 11 frutas demonstrou principalmente a superioridade da bioacessibilidade de xantofilas (variando de 10 a 52 %) em relação aos carotenos, e portanto a baixa bioacessibilidade de licopeno da pitanga (1,1%) e média bioacessibilidade de β-caroteno do buriti (26%). Pitanga e buriti tiveram o perfil de carotenoides detalhadamente acompanhados através da simulação in vitro da digestão associada à absorção intestinal por culturas de células Caco-2. Neste estudo, observou-se que embora as xantofillas sejam mais bioacessíveis, o tecido epitelial do intestino absorve preferencialmente carotenoides provitaminicos A, como o β-caroteno e a β-criptoxantina. Para produzir as microemulsões foram estudados processamentos (homogeneização de alta-velocidade - HSH e ultrassom - US) em combinação com uso de surfactantes (Whey Protein Isolate e Tween 80) e adição de óleo de milho como carreador dos carotenoides. Os experimentos mostraram que a interação entre US e HSH é capaz de romper as paredes celulares e liberarem os carotenoides com maior eficiência. Ficou demonstrado através de microscopia ótica e de fluorescência, tanto quanto pela análise de carotenoides, que foi possível manipular estruturalmente a matriz alimentar liberando os carotenoides de dentro das células vegetais e encapsulando-os dentro das gotículas de óleo, além de aumentar sua retenção após o processamento. As microemulsões obtidas sofreram efeito do tempo de processamento e do surfactante em relação à reologia, estrutura final da matriz, estabilidade ao armazenamento e estabilidade dos carotenoides ao processo. Por fim, foi utilizado um sistema dinâmico de simulação da digestão gastrointestinal para comparar o comportamento dos carotenoides oriundos das polpas integrais das frutas e das microemulsões selecionadas (Tween 80 a 2%, óleo de milho a 5% e processado por HSH-US 4 min-4 min). Os resultados demonstraram que foi possível aumentar a estabilidade à digestão e a bioacessibilidade dos carotenoides totais, do licopeno e do β-caroteno.

<p>Congestive heart failure (CHF) is a major cause of morbidity and mortality and the identification of modifiable risk factors is crucial in order to diminish suffering of this common disease. </p><p>The primary aim of this thesis was to investigate novel metabolic risk factors for CHF, with a focus on insulin resistance and inflammation. The secondary aim was to examine the validity of the CHF diagnosis in the Swedish hospital discharge register.</p><p>This thesis was based on the Uppsala Longitudinal Study of Adult Men (ULSAM) cohort, a community-based prospective study started in 1970. The participants were examined at age 50 and 70 and the data was completed with annual updates on mortality and in-hospital morbidity using national registers. </p><p>We showed that insulin resistance predicts CHF incidence independently of established risk factors in both middle-aged and elderly men. The previously described association between obesity and subsequent CHF may be mediated partly by insulin resistance. Moreover, it was established that inflammation, measured as erythrocyte sedimentation rate is a significant predictor of CHF, independent of established risk factors including an interim myocardial infarction. Furthermore, a low beta-carotene level, as well as an increased apolipoprotein B/A-I-ratio was found to predict CHF independently of established risk factors.</p><p>We also showed that the validity of the CHF diagnosis in the Swedish hospital discharge register appears less precise than for other recently investigated cardiovascular diagnoses. However, when including only cases from selected clinics or cases with a primary diagnosis of CHF, the validity is comparable to the above diagnoses. </p><p>In conclusion, insulin resistance and inflammation are strong independent risk factors for the development of CHF, and seem to be involved in the early process leading to CHF. If confirmed, our observations could have large clinical implications as they may offer new approaches in the prevention of CHF.</p>

Congestive heart failure (CHF) is a major cause of morbidity and mortality and the identification of modifiable risk factors is crucial in order to diminish suffering of this common disease. The primary aim of this thesis was to investigate novel metabolic risk factors for CHF, with a focus on insulin resistance and inflammation. The secondary aim was to examine the validity of the CHF diagnosis in the Swedish hospital discharge register. This thesis was based on the Uppsala Longitudinal Study of Adult Men (ULSAM) cohort, a community-based prospective study started in 1970. The participants were examined at age 50 and 70 and the data was completed with annual updates on mortality and in-hospital morbidity using national registers. We showed that insulin resistance predicts CHF incidence independently of established risk factors in both middle-aged and elderly men. The previously described association between obesity and subsequent CHF may be mediated partly by insulin resistance. Moreover, it was established that inflammation, measured as erythrocyte sedimentation rate is a significant predictor of CHF, independent of established risk factors including an interim myocardial infarction. Furthermore, a low beta-carotene level, as well as an increased apolipoprotein B/A-I-ratio was found to predict CHF independently of established risk factors. We also showed that the validity of the CHF diagnosis in the Swedish hospital discharge register appears less precise than for other recently investigated cardiovascular diagnoses. However, when including only cases from selected clinics or cases with a primary diagnosis of CHF, the validity is comparable to the above diagnoses. In conclusion, insulin resistance and inflammation are strong independent risk factors for the development of CHF, and seem to be involved in the early process leading to CHF. If confirmed, our observations could have large clinical implications as they may offer new approaches in the prevention of CHF.

Diet and oral supplements comprise two distinct sources of antioxidants known to prevent oxidative stress. Beneficial effects from antioxidants have been seen for patients at risk for type 2 diabetes. The aim of this thesis was to evaluate the positive effects of antioxidants against oxidative stress and DNA damage in type 2 diabetes subjects. We also used antioxidants as tools to determine the mechanisms behind genotoxicity induced by mutagenic pro-oxidative agents in mouse lymphoma cells. Several techniques were used to measure oxidative stress and DNA damage, but the main technique used was alkaline comet assay. The results showed that the fruit and vegetable intake was inversely related to oxidative stress in type 2 diabetes subjects. However, oral supplementary intake of 20 antioxidants did not decrease oxidative stress biomarkers. In studies on mouse lymphoma cells, using the alkaline comet assay, DNA damage was induced by catechol and o-phenylenediamine (OPD), while 4-nitro-o-phenylenediamine (4-NOPD) induced only oxidative damage, showing different mechanisms of action behind the mutagenicity of the compounds. Also, oxidative stress was induced by catechol and 4-NOPD, whereas imbalances in the nucleotide pool were seen after exposure to OPD or 4-NOPD. Addition of antioxidants together with these pro-oxidants showed that β-carotene was able to reduce DNA damage at low concentrations of catechol, but increased DNA damage at high concentration. In comparison, addition of α-tocopherol slightly decreased catechol-induced DNA damage at all concentrations of catechol. However, no effect of α-tocopherol was seen on OPD-or 4-NOPD-induced DNA damage. In conclusion, antioxidants from fruits and vegetables, but not from oral supplements, reduced oxidative stress in type 2 diabetes patients, suggesting fruits and vegetables being a healthier source for antioxidant-intake, as compared to oral supplements. Different mechanisms of action for mutagenic pro-oxidants were shown in mouse lymphoma cells, introducing the nucleotide pool as an interesting target for oxidative stress. Reduction of catechol-induced DNA damage by β-carotene or α-tocopherol was shown, with a pro-oxidative action of β-carotene at high concentration of catechol, Interestingly, α-tocopherol was not able to decrease OPD- or 4-NOPD-induced DNA damage, supporting different mechanisms of action behind the genotoxicity from the three pro-oxidants.

A combinação do aumento da população mundial e a melhoria nos padrões de vida estão levando a uma maior demanda por alimentos com alto valor nutricional. As variedades de laranjas de polpa vermelha são as únicas laranjas que acumulam licopeno na polpa e no suco. O licopeno é um carotenóide considerado como um composto antioxidante, com ação potencial na prevenção de alguns tipos de câncer. Apesar do valor nutricional agregado as laranjas de polpa vermelha, a caracterização fisiológica e molecular dos carotenóides nessas laranjas permanece pouco estudada. O objetivo deste trabalho foi caracterizar o perfil de transcrição de genes envolvidos na via de biossíntese dos carotenóides e quantificar a concentração dos carotenóides na polpa dos frutos de duas laranjas de polpa vermelha e da laranja Pêra (controle). Para comparação entre variedades, os frutos das laranjas Sanguínea-de-Mombuca (\'SM\') e Bahia Cara-Cara (\'CC\'), que possuem polpa vermelha, e da laranja Pêra (\'P\') foram colhidos aos 270, 300 e 330 dias após o florescimento (DAF), em Cordeirópolis (CCSM). Para identificar a influência climática no acúmulo de carotenóides, frutos da laranja de polpa vermelha \'SM\' foram também colhidos frutos aos 270, 300 e 330 DAF em diversos locais: CCSM, Mogi-Mirim (MM) e São Bento do Sapucaí (SBS). A quantidade dos transcritos dos genes fitoeno sintase (PSY), fitoeno dessaturase (PDS), \'dzeta\'-caroteno dessaturase (ZDS), carotenóide isomerase (CRTISO), licopeno \'épsilon\'-ciclase (LCY\'\'épsilon\'), licopeno \'beta\'-ciclase (LCY\'beta\'), hidroxilase \'beta\'-caroteno (HY\'beta\') e zeaxantina epoxidase (ZEP), que codificam para as enzimas da via de biossíntese dos carotenóides, foram analisados por PCR em tempo real. A quantificação dos principais carotenóides presentes no suco dos frutos foi realizada por meio de cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência. A análise quantitativa de transcritos obtidos a 330 DAF indicaram a existência de maiores níveis de expressão dos genes precursores dos carotenos (PSY, PDS, CRTISO, ZDS, LCY\'beta\') nas variedades de polpa vermelha, principalmente na \'SM\'. A quantidade dos carotenos fitoflueno, licopeno e \'beta\'-caroteno foram maiores nas laranjas vermelhas, em relação ao observado nos frutos de laranja Pêra, correlacionando com os níveis de expressão gênica. Nos frutos da laranja pigmentada \'SM\' coletadas aos 330 DAF pôde-se observar uma possível associação entre o clima do local de cultivo e o conteúdo de transcritos dos genes da via de carotenóides. O cultivo em clima mais quente (MM) resultou em frutos com maiores níveis de transcritos dos genes precursores de carotenos (PSY, PDS, ZDS, CRTISO e LCY\'beta\'), enquanto que o cultivo em região de clima mais frio (SBS) resultou no aumento do nível de transcritos dos genes precursores das xantofilas (HY\'beta\' e ZEP). Como consequência, houve um acúmulo maior dos carotenos fitoflueno, licopeno e \'beta\'-caroteno, nos frutos cultivados em locais quentes, porém, em regiões mais frias, houve maior acúmulo das xantofilas zeaxantina e violaxantina, nos frutos. Com o sequenciamento das regiões de diferentes genes da via de biossíntese de carotenóides, foram identificadas algumas mutações pontuais na sequência de nucleotídeos dos genes PSY, CRTISO e ZDS da variedade pigmentada \'SM\', em comparação com os mesmos genes da laranja Pêra. Algumas dessas mutações resultaram na alteração de aminoácidos na sequência das proteínas e deste modo, supõe-se que estes genes sejam os principais candidatos a serem os responsáveis pela alteração do fenótipo das variedades que produzem frutos com polpa avermelhada, ricos em licopeno / The increasing world population and improvement in living standards are leading to greater demand for foods with high nutritional value. The sweet orange varieties with red-flesh are the only ones that accumulate lycopene in the pulp and juice. Lycopene is a carotenoid compound with antioxidative property which may have a potential action in preventing some cancers. Despite of the high nutritional value in the red-fleshed oranges, the physiological and molecular characterization of carotenoids remains to be elucidated. The present work aimed to characterize the transcriptional profile of genes involved in carotenoids biosynthesis pathway and quantify the carotenoids in red-fleshed oranges and Pêra orange (as a control). For a direct comparison among the varieties, fruits of Sanguínea-de-Mombuca (\'SM\') and Bahia Cara-Cara (\'CC\') red-fleshed sweet oranges, and Pêra orange were harvested at 270, 300 and 330 days after flowering (DAF) in Cordeirópolis station (CCSM). To investigate the impact of climate variation on carotenoids accumulation, red-fleshed fruits \'SM\' orange were harvested on 270, 300 and 330 DAF in different climate locations: Cordeirópolis station (CCSM), Mogi-Mirim (MM) and São Bento do Sapucaí (SBS). Quantitative transcriptional analysis of the genes phytoene syntase (PSY), phytoene desaturase (PDS), \'dzeta\'-carotene desaturase (ZDS), carotenoid isomerase (CRTISO), lycopene \'épsilon\'-ciclase (LCY\'épsilon\'), lycopene \'beta\'-cyclase (LCY\'beta\'), hydroxylase \'beta\'-carotene (HY\'beta\') and zeaxanthin epoxidase (ZEP) related to the carotenoids biosynthesis pathway were performed by quantitative Real Time PCR. Further, carotenoids quantification in red-fleshed fruits was measured by high performance liquid chromatography. The transcriptional profile at 330 DAF revealed high expression levels for the carotene gene precursors (PSY, PDS, CRTISO, ZDS, LCY\'beta\') in red-fleshed oranges, in particular to \'SM\' orange when compared to Pêra orange. Carotenoids profiling displayed higher phytofluene, lycopene and \'beta\'-carotene concentrations in red-fleshed orange than Pêra orange fruits. Transcript levels of genes related to the carotenoids pathway were responsive to the climate variation in red-fleshed orange harvested at 330 DAF. In warmer climate conditions, increased expression levels were found for the genes related carotene precursors (PSY, PDS, ZDS, CRTISO and LCY\'beta\'), whereas under colder climate conditions, the red-fleshed fruits orange showed higher expression levels for the xanthophylls precursors genes (HY\'beta\' e ZEP). As a consequence, the carotenes phytofluene, lycopene and \'beta\'-carotene accumulated in warmer climate developed fruits, instead of colder climate conditions, where the fruits accumulate increased concentrations of xanthophylls such as zeaxanthin and violaxanthin. Moreover, the sequencing of fragments from different genes related to the carotenoids pathway enabled the identification of point mutations for the genes PSY, CRTISO and ZDS in the red-fleshed variety. These mutations caused amino acid changes in the protein which indicates that these genes might be responsible for the phenotypes red-fleshed fruits and increased lycopene levels shown in the variety \'SM\'

Forage of beta-carotene-fortified orange-fleshed sweet potato is essential for alleviation cattle malnutrition. The study aims were to determine effects of supplementing sweet potato (SP) roots and sun dried forage on degradation of dietary legumes, intake and milk yield in dairy cattle. Mature SP roots were oven dried and forage vines and leaves (V&L) sun dried. Lactating dairy were supplied meals with total mixed ration (TMR) constituting varying levels of sweet potato forage and concentrate. The SP flour was rapidly and completely degraded In Sacco while degradability of V&L was comparable to that of Lucerne hay. Rumen degradation of Lucerne was reduced when the legume was incubated proximal to SP. Substitution of TMR with fresh SP forage and flour meal increased degradability of diets. Glucose post-feeding was increased (P<0.05) by SP roots but no change in milk yield. Orange-fleshed SP forage is recommended for improving energy supply in lactating cow diets / Agriculture and  Animal Health / M. Sc. (Agriculture)

O presente trabalho avaliou o crescimento da microalga Dunaliella tertiolecta pela biofixação do CO2 liberado pela produção de cerveja, reciclando um dos gases responsáveis pelo efeito estufa, reduzindo custo da matéria-prima CO2 e agregando valor ao produzir lipídeos e carotenoides naturais. Para isso a microalga foi cultivada em sistemas integrados entre fotobiorreatores e fermentadores. A diferença nos cultivos foi o tipo e a quantidade de CO2 produzida pelas fermentações. Inicialmente se fez fermentações com meio YPD (Yeast Peptone Dextrose) em fermentadores de 2 L acoplados a cada 24 h aos fotobiorreatores em 4 condições distintas, sendo o último fermentador colocado sempre em 144 h de cultivo de microalgas: 30 g L-1 de dextrose a partir de 72 h de cultivo de microalgas, 60 g L-1 de dextrose a partir de 72 h de cultivo de microalgas, 30 g L-1 de dextrose a partir de 24 h de cultivo de microalgas e variando a concentração de (10 à 60) g L-1 de dextrose a partir de 24 h de cultivo de microalgas (YPD (10-60)/24). Os maiores valores para biomassa, carotenoides, produtividades e lipídeos foram obtidos na condição YPD (10-60)/24. Para reproduzir a essa condição utilizando mosto de cerveja, foi calculada a conversão de substrato em produto para, então, acoplar diariamente volumes diferentes de mosto de cerveja em cultivos de microalgas. Os valores obtidos para os cultivos com CO2 desprendidos por estas fermentações foram 1,10 ± 0,05 g L-1 de biomassa, 0,18 ± 0,01 g L-1 d-1 de produtividade de biomassa, 0,58 ± 0,06 d-1 foi a velocidade específica de crescimento, 4,74 ± 0,59 mg g-1 de carotenoides por biomassa, 0,86 ± 0,06 mg L-1 d-1 de produtividade de carotenoides e 13,5 ± 0,4 % (em massa) de lipídeos. Estes valores foram praticamente o dobro dos valores obtidos para o cultivo com CO2 do ar atmosférico, demonstrando que a integração entre fermentadores e fotobiorreatores é uma boa alternativa para indústria alimentícia. Todos cultivos com D. tertiolecta apresentaram o mesmo perfil de carotenoides representado por 46,7 ± 2,0 % de luteína, 22,5 ± 1,6 % de β-caroteno, 9,50 ± 0,66 % de zeaxantina, 1,10 ± 0,16 % de α-caroteno e 20,2 ± 3,0 % para outros. / This study evaluated the growth of microalgae Dunaliella tertiolecta for CO2 biofixation released by brewing, recycling one of the greenhouse gases, reducing cost of raw material CO2 and adding value to produce lipids and natural carotenoids. For this, microalgae were cultivated in integrated systems between photobioreactors and fermenters. The difference in the cultures was the culture medium and the amount of CO2 produced. Initially, fermentation with medium YPD (Yeast Peptone Dextrose) in 2 L fermenters were coupled every 24 h to photobioreactors in 4 different conditions: 30 g L-1 of dextrose from 72 h culture of microalgae; 60 g L-1 of dextrose from 72 h culture of microalgae; 30 g L-1 of dextrose from 24 h culture of microalgae; and ranging dextrose concentration of (10 to 60) g L-1 from 24 h culture of microalgae (YPD (10-60)/24). The highest values for biomass, carotenoids, productivities and lipids were obtained in the condition YPD (10-60)/24. To reproduce this condition using beer wort, the substrate to product yield was determined and different volumes of beer wort where daily coupled to microalgae cultivations. The values obtained for cultures with CO2 released from these fermentations were 1.10 ± 0.05 g L-1 of biomass, 0.18 ± 0.01 g L-1 d-1 of biomass productivity, 0.58 ± 0.06 d-1 for the specific growth rate, 4.74 ± 0,59 mg g-1 of carotenoids per biomass, 0.86 ± 0.06 mg L-1 d-1 of carotenoids productivity and 13.5 ± 0.4 % (mass fraction) of lipids. These values were almost twice the values observed in the cultivation with CO2 of atmospheric air, showing that the integration between fermenters and photobioreactors is a good alternative to increase microalgae growth. All cultures with D. tertiolecta showed the same profile of carotenoids represented by 46.7 ± 2.0 % of lutein, 22.5 ± 1.6 % of β-carotene, 9.50 ± 0.66 % of zeaxanthin, 1.10 ± 0.16 % of α-carotene and 20.2 ± 3.0 % for others.