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Le dysfonctionnement de l'exocytose des granules cytotoxiques est responsable d'une susceptibilité accrue aux pathogènes intracellulaires qui s'accompagne de l'activation continue et anarchique des lymphocytes cytotoxiques et des macrophages. Ce phénomène conduit à la lymphohistiocytose hémophagocytique (HLH), un syndrome auto-inflammatoire fatal en absence d'intervention thérapeutique. Les mutations des gènes codant pour la perforine (PRF-1) ou pour certaines des protéines impliquées dans la biogénèse ou le transport vésiculaire des granules cytotoxiques sont causales des formes familiales ou primaires de la HLH (FHL). La HLH fait également partie des complications secondaires aux infections à herpesviridae et à certains désordres immunologiques importants tels que l'arthrite juvénile idiopathique (SoJIA). Au moment d'entreprendre les travaux présentés dans ce manuscrit, le premier cas de HLH induite par une mutation menant à l'activation constitutive de la composante NLRC4 de l'inflammasome était décrit. L'inflammasome est une structure multimérique composée d'un récepteur cytosolique, de la protéine échafaud ASC et de la Caspase-1. Son activation mène à la maturation des pro-formes de l'IL-1β et l'IL-18 ainsi qu'à leur sécrétion. L'activation constitutive de NLRC4 étant suffisante au déclenchement de la HLH, nous avons tenté de comprendre si cette structure y était essentielle dans le cadre des défauts génétiques de cytotoxicité. Nous avons donc invalidé la protéine ASC ou Caspase-1 dans le modèle murin de HLH déficient pour la perforine (PRF1 -/-). Nous avons également testé l'hypothèse qu'un déficit de cytotoxicité pouvait expliquer le développement de la HLH chez les patients souffrant de SoJIA. Nos résultats montrent que l'inflammasome est nécessaire à la production d'IL-18 lors de la HLH mais qu'il n'est pas essentiel au développement de la maladie dans le cadre des FHL. Par ailleurs, nous montrons que la cytotoxicité des cellules NK semble normale chez les patients atteints de SoJIA, ce qui suggère que les mécanismes immunologiques à l'origine de la HLH dans les FHL et dans les maladies autoinflammatoires comme la SoJIA sont distincts. Dans la seconde partie de ce manuscrit, nous avons étudié sur le rôle de la sérine/thréonine/tyrosine kinase Styk1 dans la régulation des lymphocytes cytotoxiques NK. Ces derniers sont responsables du contrôle immunitaire précoce des pathogènes intracellulaires et contribuent à l'immunosurveillance des cellules tumorales. Suite à leur activation, ils relâchent de très grandes quantités d'IFN-y et de TNF-α, faisant ainsi le lien entre l'immunité innée et adaptative. La reconnaissance des cellules cibles par les lymphocytes NK est gouvernée par l'expression d'un éventail de récepteurs qui transduisent des signaux, activateurs ou inhibiteurs, et dont la balance se traduit par l'activation ou la tolérance. Ces récepteurs sont codés au sein de deux complexes génétiques très denses, le complexe de cytotoxicité naturelle (NCR) et le complexe des récepteurs des leucocytes (LRC). Au moment de commencer ces travaux, nous avions révélé que l'expression de la kinase Styk1 fait partie de la signature transcriptionnelle des lymphocytes NK. Sa fonction dans le système immunitaire demeure toutefois inconnue. Néanmoins, la localisation génétique favorable de Styk1, près du NCR, ainsi que son implication dans la voie PI3K-AKT, en faisaient un candidat potentiel de régulation des lymphocytes NK. Afin de connaître le rôle de Styk1 dans le développement et les fonctions effectrices des lymphocytes NK, nous avons donc généré une souris pour laquelle Styk1 est invalidé. Nos résultats confirment que Styk1 est exprimée de façon spécifique par les cellules NK. Nous avons également détecté une diminution de l'activité constitutive de la voie AKT/mTOR dans les cellules NK, mais le développement, l'homéostasie et la fonction des cellules NK sont cependant normaux dans les souris déficientes en Styk1 / Upon recognition of infected or target cells, CD8+ T and Natural Killer (NK) lymphocytes initiate a polarized degranulation of vesicle storing cytotoxic molecules (perforin: PRF1 and granzyme B). By altering the target cell’s cellular membrane integrity, perforine allows granzyme B to translocate to its cytosol. Genetic anomalies may affect normal cytotoxic functions and severely hamper the control of intracellular pathogens. In this context, the pathogenic signal remains uninterrupted and both cytotoxic lymphocytes and macrophages are continuously stimulated. This auto-inflammatory pathological condition is named hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) and is fatal without therapeutic intervention. HLH can also occur secondary to infection with viruses from the herpesviridae family, or be concomitant to important immune alterations such as systemic onset juvenile idiopathic arthritis (SoJIA), with no clear etiological cause identified. In 2014, a case of HLH mediated by the constitutive activation of the NLRC4 inflammasome receptor was first described. The inflammasome is a multimeric structure involving a cytosolic receptor, a scaffold protein – ASC – and Caspase-1. In the immune system, the inflammasome is expressed in macrophages and dendritic cells and senses pathogenic (PAMP) and danger (DAMP) associated signals. Once activated, inflammasome’s protein Caspase-1 catalyzes the maturation of pro-IL-1b and pro-IL-18 and leads to their secretion. Since NLRC4 constitutive activation appears to be sufficient for triggering HLH, we aimed to understand if the inflammasome structure was essential to the development of the syndrome. In order to address this question, we invalidated the inflammasome through the abrogation of ASC or Caspase-1 in PRF1 -/- HLH mouse model. We also tested the hypothesis that an altered cytotoxic function could explain the high prevalence of HLH in the proinflammatory context of SoJIA. The results we present here show that the inflammasome is responsible for the elevated levels of IL-18 in the serum of HLH patients. However, the inflammasome is facultative for its development. We also demonstrate that in patients suffering from SoJIA, NK cells show normal cytotoxicity, suggesting that immunological mechanisms involved in FHL and secondary HLH are distinct. In the second part of this manuscript, we aim at understanding the role of Styk1 serine/threonine/tyrosine kinase in NK cells’ regulation. NK cells are in charge of eliminating stressed, virally infected or transformed cells. Upon activation, they secrete large amounts of IFN-γ and TNF-α, thus bridging innate and adaptive immunity. Capabilities for recognition of target cells is endowed by the expression of numerous stochastically expressed activating and inhibitory receptors. The balance between activating and inhibitory signal allows for self-tolerance or activation upon engagement of abnormal cells. Activating and inhibitory receptor are germline encoded in two dense, large complexes, the Natural Killer Complex (NKC) and the Leukocyte Receptor Complex (LRC). At the moment of starting this work, we had recently identified that Styk1 was a signature transcript of NK cells. However, its function in NK cells and more generally in the immune system remains unknown. Nevertheless, its genetic localisation near the NKC and its potential implication in the PI3K-AKT pathway prompt that it may play a role in NK cell development and/or functions. In order to evaluate the role of Styk1 in NK cells’ regulation, we generated a mouse model in which its expression is abrogated. Our data confirms that amongst all immune subsets, Styk1 is specifically expressed by NK cells. Styk1 was also able to discriminate NK cells from other ILCs. In this study, we show that Styk1 invalidation lead to a decrease of activity in the AKT/mTOR pathway. However, NK cells development, homeostasis and function were surprisingly normal in Styk1 -/- mice

Inflammation involves a complex interplay of immunological responses in reaction to an infection from invading pathogens and to tissue injury. However, if the inflammatory stimulus is not eliminated or if there is an aberrant response, chronic inflammation and disease can result. Most inflammatory diseases are targeted by drugs that provide only symptomatic relief by reducing the associated pain and swelling, without combating the underlying cause and progression of the disease. The purpose of this thesis was to investigate potential drug targets in different sub-cellular compartments to learn more about inflammatory pathways and the consequences of inhibiting them using different classes of small-molecule agents. Chapter 1 is a brief overview of inflammation, outlining differences between acute and chronic inflammation in relation to normal and aberrant immune responses. Major drug classes that are currently in use are briefly discussed, and some potential new inflammatory drug targets in the nucleus, cytoplasm, plasma membrane and serum that are to be investigated in the thesis are described. Chapter 2 addresses histone deacetylase (HDAC) enzymes that modulate gene transcription, and investigates the regulatory potential of HDACs and their inhibitors in macrophages. Mainly murine macrophages were investigated, but preliminary data on human macrophages is also presented. Four kinds of small-molecule inhibitors of HDAC enzymes are described in relation to their capacity to exhibit pro- or anti- inflammatory gene expression. Broad-spectrum inhibitors, those that do not discriminate between different isoforms of HDACs, were found to induce expression of a number of pro-inflammatory mediators. This was also the case for compounds that selectively inhibit class-I HDACs. On the other hand, compounds that are known to selectively inhibit class-II HDACs did not regulate pro-inflammatory genes and could be classified as anti-inflammatory based on their profiles of gene expression. An inhibitor of class-III HDACs, the sirtuins, was also briefly investigated for anti-inflammatory gene expression. This separation of the pro- and anti-inflammatory responses suggested that specific inhibitors of class II HDACs might be promising for treating inflammatory conditions. Chapters 3 and 4 discuss a group of extracellular serum proteins that are produced through the complement pathway. Complement proteins circulate in plasma while some are formed on membranes through serine protease action, and effect both innate and adaptive immune responses. Chapter 3 deals with the alternative pathway (AP) of complement activation, in particular with the protease Factor B which plays an important role as part of a protein complex (C3 convertase) in the initiation and propagation of complement. Factor B is an inactive zymogen at pH 7, but is catalytically active at alkaline pH. Substrate-based inhibitors were developed for Factor B using a chromogenic assay previously optimised in our lab. Over 60 peptide aldehydes were evaluated, with two potent inhibitors of Factor B studied further, and were found to inhibit C3 convertase by blocking cleavage of the native substrate C3 as measured by SDS-PAGE. Chapter 4 examined the properties of a homologue of Factor B found in the classical pathway (CP), the protease C2. C2 was found herein to be an inactive zymogen at pH 7. Under alkaline conditions C2 cleaved both C3 and short chromogenic peptide substrates. Substrates of 7- or 8-residues, corresponding to those in the native substrate C3, were optimally processed. C2 was inhibited by inhibitors identified in Chapter 3, which also inhibited formation of the different C3 convertase formed through the CP, as well as preventing formation of the terminal membrane attack complex (MAC) as measured by an immobilized ELISA and haemolysis assay. The selectivity of small-molecule peptidic inhibitors for different serine proteases was investigated. Chapter 5 introduces two other unrelated inflammatory proteins which have been incompletely studied herein. Protease-activated receptor 2 (PAR-2) is a cell surface protein that spans the membrane like other G-protein coupled receptors. PAR-2 has been implicated in inflammatory and proliferative diseased states, though its precise roles are still unclear. Here, PAR-2 mRNA expression was measured for different human cancer and immune cells. In macrophages, PAR-2 mRNA expression was inducible by HDACi, indicating that PAR-2 is negatively regulated by HDAC enzymes. The receptor was present and functional on the surface of HDACi-treated macrophages, permitting evaluation of PAR-2 agonists and antagonists. Caspase-1 is a cytosolic cysteine protease responsible for cleaving proIL-1β and proIL-18 into their active forms that are then secreted from cells as pro-inflammatory cytokines. Using monocytic cells, novel inhibitors of caspase-1 were developed and found to dose-dependently decrease levels of IL-1β released by the cell. Inhibition of caspase-1 may be useful for modulating circulating levels of the inflammatory cytokine IL-1β. The investigation of different prospective inflammatory targets in different locations of the cell has provided a lateral overview of inflammatory mechanisms and drug intervention strategies. Specific inhibitors have also been identified for these targets; HDACs in the nucleus, caspase-1 in the cytosol, PAR-2 and MAC on the cell surface, C2 and Factor B and C3 convertase in plasma. This unconventional study of the inflammatory network provides a different viewpoint of inflammatory proteins as drug targets.

La fibrose pulmonaire (FP) idiopathique est une maladie sans traitement efficace caractérisée par une prolifération de myofibroblastes et par un départ sous-pleural suggérant un rôle de la plèvre. Le transforming growth factor (TGF)-ß1 induit un processus de transformation des cellules mésothéliales pleurales (CMP) en cellules de type myofibroblaste. Les protéines de choc thermique régulent la voie du TGF-ß1. L’importance de l’axe caspase-1/IL-1ß, a été décrite dans les modèles animaux de FP.La protéine de stress AlphaB-crystallin a été étudiée dans la FP au niveau des CMP et l’importance de l’axe caspase-1/IL-1ß a été recherchée au niveau des cellules structurales pulmonaires dans la toxicité de la bléomycine (BLM).aB-crystallin est surexprimée dans la FP idiopathique au niveau des CMP. Son inhibition empêche la transformation et la migration des CMP dans la fibrose pleuro-pulmonaire. Dans un modèle de FP induite par la BLM chez la souris, la voie caspase-1 est activée dans les régions pleurales. In vitro, la caspase-1 a un rôle crucial dans la transformation des CMP. Son activation induit une réaction fibrosante chez la souris. Dans une seconde partie, nous montrons qu’une forme déglycosylée de la BLM, incapable d’activer la caspase-1, n’induit pas de FP mais a une activité anti-cancéreuse. La déglyco-BLM n’entraine pas la pyroptose, mort caspase-1 dépendante, chez les cellules épithéliales alvéolaires. Nos résultats suggèrent qu’AlphaB-crystallin et la voie caspase-1/IL-1ß pourraient être des cibles thérapeutiques dans la FP idiopathique ou induite par la BLM. Nous apportons aussi une preuve de concept de l’utilisation de la déglyco-BLM comme alternative non toxique à la bléomycine. / Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis (PF) is a rare and devastating disease without efficient treatment at this time. Idiopathic FP is characterized by accumulation of myofibroblasts and has a typical sub-pleural onset suggesting a role of the pleura in the disease. Transforming Growth Factor (TGF)-ß1 induces transformation of pleural mesothelial cells (PMC) into active cells exhibiting myofibroblast phenotype. Heat shock proteins can act as regulator of the TGF-ß1 signaling. A role for caspase-1/IL-1ß axis has already been described in animal models of PF.The heat shock protein AlphaB-crystallin has been studied in PF at the PMC level and the importance of caspase-1/IL-1ß axis has been investigated specifically in lung structural cells in the context of bleomycin (BLM) toxicity.AlphaB-crystallin is overexpressed by PMC during idiopathic PF. Its inhibition in mice interferes with PMC transformation and subsequent migration in pleuro-pulmonary fibrosis. In BLM-induced PF in mice, caspase-1 is activated in sub-pleural areas. In vitro, caspase-1 has a crucial role in the transformation process of PMC. Activation of caspase-1 triggers fibrotic response in mice. In a second part, we show that a deglycosylated form of BLM, which failed to promote caspase-1 activation, is unable to trigger PF but stills have an anti-tumor activity. Deglyco-BLM does not induce pyroptosis, a caspase-1 dependent cell death, in alveolar epithelial cells.Our data suggest that AlphaB-crystallin and caspase-1/IL-1ß could represent interesting therapeutic targets in idiopathic as well as BLM-induced PF. We also bring a proof of concept for the use of deglyco-BLM as a less toxic alternative to BLM in cancer therapy.

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The inflammasome complex is a multiprotein complex that may play a role in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) by secreting the inflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-18, and inducing pyroptosis, as a response to signals through several inflammasome sensors. This study looked at the expression of several inflammasome components in the ileum and colon of patients suffering from IBD. The inflammasome sensors NLRP1, NLRP3, AIM2 and pyrin were upregulated in whole intestinal tissue of IBD patients, particularly in the colon. NLRP6 expression was increased in the colon of Crohn's disease patients, but not ulcerative colitis patients relative to colon of controls, and was reduced in the ileum of Crohn's disease patients compared to control ileum. Expression of caspase-1 and IL-1β, but not IL-18, were also increased in ileum and colon tissue from Crohn's patients. To identify the cell type where inflammasome expression was altered in Crohn’s disease, transcription of inflammasome subunits in intestinal tissue enriched for epithelial cells or lamina propria (LP) cells was analysed. These analyses indicated that LP cells have greater expression of the inflammasome sensors NLRP1, NLRP3, AIM2 and pyrin relative to epithelial cells, both during disease and in control tissue. Moreover, LP cells from Crohn’s patients have higher expression level of NLRP1, AIM2 and pyrin than LP cells from controls. In contrast the inflammasome sensor NLRP6 was more highly expressed by epithelial cells relative to LP cells in general, and NLRP6 expression in LP cells from IBD patients was lower than that observed in LP cells from controls. The observed differential expression of inflammasome components in controls versus IBD intestine and in different cellular fractions of intestinal tissue highlight the importance of understanding the role of the inflammasome in IBD and hints at the possibility of targeting the inflammasome pathway as a future treatment strategy.

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Die rasanten Fortschritte in der neonatalen Intensivmedizin haben zwar die Ueberlebenschancen von Fruehgeborenen enorm verbessert, aber auch viele Probleme und Fragen aufgeworfen. In dieser Arbeit wurde untersucht, ob Hyperoxie Einfluss nimmt auf die Expression von apoptotischen Genen, Wachstumsfaktoren und Zytokinen und so ueber verschiedene Mechanismen und Signalwege zu einem Ungleichgewicht der ueber das neuronale Ueberleben entscheidenden Faktoren fuehrt. 6-Tage alte Ratten wurden fuer bestimme Zeitabschnitte (2, 6, 12, 24, 48, 72 Stunden) einer 80%igen Sauerstoffkonzentration ausgesetzt. In dieser Arbeit konnte am unreifen Rattengehirn nachgewiesen werden, dass eine 80%ige Sauerstoffkonzentration in der Atemluft maximal nach 12 bis 24 Stunden zu einer ausgepraegten, diffusen apoptotischen Neurodegeneration im Gehirn fuehrt. Die Exposition mit hoher Sauerstoffkonzentration fuehrte im unreifen Gehirn zu einer deutlich verminderten Expression der Neurotrophinen, wie deren Signalproteine ERK 1/2 und Akt. Als spezifischer Nachweis fuer eine apoptotische Neurodegeneration wurden neben dem histologischen Verfahren auf molekularer Ebene apoptotische Gene untersucht. Unter Hyperoxie kam es zu einer erhoehten Expression des Todesrezeptors Fas und einer gesteigerten Aktivitaet von Caspase-3.Des Weiteren fand sich infolge der Hyperoxieexposition ein drastischer Anstieg der inflammatorischen Zytokine IL-1beta und IL-18. Es zeigt sich also, dass hohe Sauerstoffkonzentrationen in einer sehr vulnerablen Phase der Hirnentwicklung (Phase des rapiden Hirnwachstums) zu massiven Veraenderungen fuehren, welche den bisher ungeklaerten diffusen Neuronenuntergang bei Fruehgeborenen erklaeren koennten. Die vorliegenden Ergebnisse implizieren aeu§erste Vorsicht bei der therapeutischen Anwendung von Sauerstoff bei Fruehgeborenen, fuer die die postnatalen Konditionen, verglichen mit den intrauterinen Bedingungen, immer hyperoxisch sind und die noch ueber ein unreifes Antioxidationssystem verfuegen. / Infants born prematurely may develop neurocognitive deficits without an obvious cause. Oxygen, which is widely used in neonatal medicine, constitutes one possible contributing neurotoxic factor, because it can trigger neuronal apoptosis in the developing brain of rodents. Premature infants are exposed to partial oxygen pressures that are fourfold higher compared to intrauterine conditions, even if no supplemental oxygen is administered. Here is reported that short exposures to nonphysiologic oxygen levels can trigger apoptotic neurodegeneration in the developing brain. Vulnerability to oxygen neurotoxicity is confined to the first 2 weeks of life, a period characterized by rapid growth, which in humans expands from the sixth month of pregnancy to the third year of life. Hyperoxia caused decreased expression of neurotrophins, and inactivation of survival signalling proteins extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK1/2), and protein kinase B (Akt). In addition we hypothesized that two caspase-1-processed cytokines, interleukin (IL)-1beta and IL-18, are involved in oxygen-induced neuronal cell death. Six-day-old Wistar rats were exposed to 80% oxygen for various time periods (2, 6, 12, 24, 48, 72 hours). Neuronal cell death in the brain, as assessed by silver staining, peaked at 12 to 24 hours and was preceded by a marked increase in mRNA of IL-1beta, IL-18 and FAS and a decrease in mRNA and protein levels of neurotrophins and ERK1/2 and Akt Our findings reveal mechanisms that could potentially damage the developing brain of human premature neonates.