Simple Summary Glioblastoma is the most common primary brain cancer in adults. One reason for the development and malignancy of this tumor is the misregulation of certain cellular proteins. The oncoprotein STAT3 that is frequently overactive in glioblastoma cells is associated with more aggressive disease and decreased patient survival. Autophagy is a form of cellular self digestion that normally maintains cell integrity and provides nutrients and basic building blocks required for growth. While glioblastoma is known to be particularly resistant to conventional therapies, recent research has suggested that these tumors are more sensitive to excessive overactivation of autophagy, leading to autophagy-dependent tumor cell death. Here, we show a hitherto unknown role of STAT3 in sensitizing glioblastoma cells to excessive autophagy induced with the repurposed drug pimozide. These findings provide the basis for future research aimed at determining whether STAT3 can serve as a predictor for autophagy-proficient tumors and further support the notion of overactivating autophagy for cancer therapy. Abstract Glioblastoma (GBM) is a devastating disease and the most common primary brain malignancy of adults with a median survival barely exceeding one year. Recent findings suggest that the antipsychotic drug pimozide triggers an autophagy-dependent, lysosomal type of cell death in GBM cells with possible implications for GBM therapy. One oncoprotein that is often overactivated in these tumors and associated with a particularly dismal prognosis is Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription 3 (STAT3). Here, we used isogenic human and murine GBM knockout cell lines, advanced fluorescence microscopy, transcriptomic analysis and FACS-based assessment of cell viability to show that STAT3 has an underappreciated, context-dependent role in drug-induced cell death. Specifically, we demonstrate that depletion of STAT3 significantly enhances cell survival after treatment with Pimozide, suggesting that STAT3 confers a particular vulnerability to GBM. Furthermore, we show that active STAT3 has no major influence on the early steps of the autophagy pathway, but exacerbates drug-induced lysosomal membrane permeabilization (LMP) and release of cathepsins into the cytosol. Collectively, our findings support the concept of exploiting the pro-death functions of autophagy and LMP for GBM therapy and to further determine whether STAT3 can be employed as a treatment predictor for highly apoptosis-resistant, but autophagy-proficient cancers.

Programmed cell death in animals, plants and protists is in part regulated by a variety of proteases, including cysteine aspartyl proteases, (caspases, paracaspases and metacaspases), cathepsins, subtilisin-like serine proteases, vacuolar processing enzymes and the proteasome. The role of different proteases in the cell death responses of the fungi is however largely unknown. A greater understanding of the fungal cell death machinery may provide new insights into the mechanisms and evolution of PCD and potentially reveal novel targets for a new generation of antifungal drugs. The role of a metacaspase encoding gene, MCA1, in the cell death response of the human pathogen Candida albicans pathogen has been investigated by functional analysis. MCA1 deletion not only alters the sensitivity of cells to a number of cell death stimuli, it also enhances virulence in an insect model. C. albicans shows altered cell and colony morphology on Lee’s medium. Evidence is presented to suggest that these functions appear to be dependent upon active mitochondria. In this study it has also been shown that key caspase substrates may be conserved between humans and the yeasts Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida albicans. Many substrates, particularly those which are essential, have retained their caspase cleavage motifs. 14 protease mutants displayed altered activity against caspase 1, 3, 6 or 8 substrates during acetic acid-induced PCD and caspase 1-like activity appeared to be particularly associated with PCD. Using a novel bioinformatic analysis of experimental LC-MS/MS data, changes in the degradation patterns of the proteome (destructome) following acetic acid-induced cell death have been investigated in wild-type yeast. In addition, potential native substrates of the yeast Mca1 have also been identified. The future challenge is to characterise the destructome of different proteases under a range of cell death conditions. In this way it may be possible to identify key components of the cell death machinery and their substrates and so reveal the most promising targets for future therapeutics.

Much experimental evidence shows that the cytoskeleton is a downstream target and effector during cell death in numerous neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson's, Huntington's, and Alzheimer's diseases. However, recent evidence indicates that cytoskeletal dysfunction can also trigger neuronal death, by mechanisms as yet poorly understood. We studied a mathematical model of cytoskeleton-induced neuron death in which assembly control of the neuronal cytoskeleton interacts with both cellular stress levels and cytosolic free radical concentrations to trigger neurodegeneration. This trigger mechanism is further modulated by the presence of cell interactions in the form of a diffusible toxic factor released by dying neurons. We found that, consistent with empirical observations, the model produces one-hit exponential and sigmoid patterns of cell dropout. In all cases, cell dropout is exponential-tailed and described accurately by a gamma distribution. The transition between exponential and sigmoidal is gradual, and determined by a synergetic interaction between the magnitude of fluctuations in cytoskeleton assembly control and by the degree of cell coupling. We concluded that a single mechanism involving neuron interactions and fluctuations in cytoskeleton assembly control is compatible with the experimentally observed range of neuronal attrition kinetics. We also studied the transit of neurons through states intermediate between initial viability and cell death. We found that the stochastic flow of neuron fate, from viability to cell death, self-organizes into two distinct temporal phases. There is a rapid relaxation of the initial neuron population to a more disordered phase that is long-lived, or metastable, with respect to the time scales of change in single cells. Strikingly, cellular egress from this metastable phase follows the one-hit kinetic pattern of exponential decline now established as a principal hallmark of cell death in neurodegenerative disorders. Intermediate state metastability may therefore be an important element in the systems biology of one-hit neurodegeneration. Further, we studied the full spatiotemporal dynamics of death factor pulses released from dying neurons to emphasize the effects of the cell-to-cell coupling strength on neuron death rates. The rate of neuron cell loss monotonically increased with increased diffusion-dependent intercellular communication. Death factor diffusion effects may therefore be important moderators of one-hit neurodegeneration.

Much experimental evidence shows that the cytoskeleton is a downstream target and effector during cell death in numerous neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson's, Huntington's, and Alzheimer's diseases. However, recent evidence indicates that cytoskeletal dysfunction can also trigger neuronal death, by mechanisms as yet poorly understood. We studied a mathematical model of cytoskeleton-induced neuron death in which assembly control of the neuronal cytoskeleton interacts with both cellular stress levels and cytosolic free radical concentrations to trigger neurodegeneration. This trigger mechanism is further modulated by the presence of cell interactions in the form of a diffusible toxic factor released by dying neurons. We found that, consistent with empirical observations, the model produces one-hit exponential and sigmoid patterns of cell dropout. In all cases, cell dropout is exponential-tailed and described accurately by a gamma distribution. The transition between exponential and sigmoidal is gradual, and determined by a synergetic interaction between the magnitude of fluctuations in cytoskeleton assembly control and by the degree of cell coupling. We concluded that a single mechanism involving neuron interactions and fluctuations in cytoskeleton assembly control is compatible with the experimentally observed range of neuronal attrition kinetics. We also studied the transit of neurons through states intermediate between initial viability and cell death. We found that the stochastic flow of neuron fate, from viability to cell death, self-organizes into two distinct temporal phases. There is a rapid relaxation of the initial neuron population to a more disordered phase that is long-lived, or metastable, with respect to the time scales of change in single cells. Strikingly, cellular egress from this metastable phase follows the one-hit kinetic pattern of exponential decline now established as a principal hallmark of cell death in neurodegenerative disorders. Intermediate state metastability may therefore be an important element in the systems biology of one-hit neurodegeneration. Further, we studied the full spatiotemporal dynamics of death factor pulses released from dying neurons to emphasize the effects of the cell-to-cell coupling strength on neuron death rates. The rate of neuron cell loss monotonically increased with increased diffusion-dependent intercellular communication. Death factor diffusion effects may therefore be important moderators of one-hit neurodegeneration.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Ciliopathies with multiorgan pathology include renal cysts and eye pathology. Previous studies showed meckelin (MKS3 protein product) are crucial to cilia function and its absence in Wpk rats (with mutated rMks3 gene) causes Leber's congenital amaurosis. Retinal photoreceptors have connecting cilium that joins the inner to the outer segment and plays a role in the transport of molecules necessary for morphological and molecular development and maintenance of the outer segment process. The present study evaluated meckelin expression during normal postnatal retinal development and the consequences of mutant meckelin on photoreceptor development and survival in Wistar-Wpk/Wpk rat. Meckelin was co-expressed in photoreceptors, amacrine, Muller glia and ganglion cells in postnatal day 10 (P10) and P21 wild type retinae. Meckelin was detected in both inner and outer segments of photoreceptors. By P10, both wild type and homozygous Wpk mutant retina had all retinal cell types. In contrast, by P21, cells expressing photoreceptor-specific markers in the Wpk mutant were fewer in number with abnormal expression patterns. Cell death assays confirmed a significant amount of cells undergoing apoptosis in the outer nuclear layer of the mutant rat retina. By electron microscopy, mutant photoreceptors did not develop an outer segment process beyond a connecting cilium and rudimentary outer segment. We conclude that MKS3 is not important for formation of connecting cilium and rudimentary outer segments, but is critical for the elongation and/or maintenance of mature outer segment processes.

The administration of antibodies blocking the immune checkpoint molecules programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) or programmed cell death 1 ligand 1 (PD-L1) has evolved as a very promising treatment option for cancer patients. PD-1/PD-L1 inhibition has significantly enhanced expansion, cytokine secretion, and cytotoxic activity of CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes, resulting in enhanced antitumor responses. Anti-PD-1 or anti-PD-L1 therapy has induced tumor regression and improved clinical outcome in patients with different tumor entities, including melanoma, non-small-cell lung cancer, and renal cell carcinoma. These findings led to the approval of various anti-PD-1 or anti-PD-L1 antibodies for the treatment of tumor patients. However, the majority of patients have failed to respond to this treatment modality. Comprehensive immune monitoring of clinical trials led to the identification of potential biomarkers distinguishing between responders and non-responders, the discovery of modes of treatment resistance, and the design of improved immunotherapeutic strategies. In this review article, we summarize the evolving landscape of biomarkers for anti-PD-1 or anti-PD-L1 therapy.

Résumé : La mort cellulaire neuronale est un phénomène qui se produit pendant le développement du cerveau, mais aussi dans les conditions pathologiques. Selon l’environnement où la cellule se retrouve; l’apoptose ou la nécrose peuvent contribuer à cette mort neuronale. La nécrose produit un environnement qui promeut l’inflammation ainsi que la cytotoxicité. L’apoptose est un processus hautement organisé qui permet l’homéostasie tissulaire. Un récepteur NOD récemment découvert, Nlrx1, jouerait un rôle dans la régulation de l’inflammation et de la mort cellulaire pendant les infections. Par conséquent, notre hypothèse suppose que Nlrx1 joue un rôle neuroprotecteur en contrôlant la mort neuronale. Afin de déterminer le mécanisme protecteur de Nlrx1 in vitro, un Knock-Down, un Knock-In et un témoin Scrambled de Nlrx1 dans les cellules N2a ont été générés. Des essais LDH de mort cellulaire avec la staurosporine ou le stress oxydatif comme la roténone, le MPP+ ou le H[indice inférieur 2]O[indice inférieur 2] ont été exécutés. Suite au traitement de 24 heures à la staurosporine, les cellules N2a Knock-In subissent plus de mort cellulaire que les cellules N2a Knock-Down et les cellules Scrambled. Quand ces cellules sont traitées à la roténone ou au H[indice inférieur 2]O[indice inférieur 2], les cellules Knock-In subissent moins de mort cellulaire que les cellules Scrambled. Les cellules N2a Knock-Down ont plus de mort cellulaire que les cellules Scrambled quand elles sont traitées à la roténone ou au MPP+. Les analyses par immunobuvardage de type Western des protéines HSP90 et HMGB1 ainsi que par cytométrie en flux ont montré que les cellules Knock-In ont moins de cellules nécrotiques lorsque traitées à la roténone comparé aux cellules contrôles Scrambled. Le ratio des cellules nécrotiques/cellules apoptotiques était aussi plus élevé dans les cellules Knock-Down comparé aux cellules Scrambled. Par microscopie électronique, il a été possible d’observer que les cellules N2a Knock-In contiennent plus de mitochondries que les cellules Knock-Down et Scrambled en conditions témoins. Ces résultats ont aussi été confirmés par marquage au mitotracker en cytométrie de flux L’immunobuvardage de type Western a montré que dans les cellules Knock-In, il y avait une augmentation de la protéine phosphorylée-DRP1 active, une protéine impliquée dans la fission mitochondriale. Ces résultats pourraient expliquer le nombre augmenté de mitochondries observé dans les cellules Knock-In. Des expériences d’immunoprécipitation ont montré une association entre Nlrx1 et DRP1, ainsi qu’avec la forme active phosphorylée de DRP1. En ajoutant le Mdivi, un inhibiteur de la fission mitochondriale, aux traitements de roténone ou H[indice inférieur 2]O[indice inférieur 2], la mort cellulaire était augmentée dans les cellules Knock-In comparé aux cellules Scrambled. Également, la nécrose était augmentée dans les cellules Knock-In à des niveaux semblables à ceux retrouvés chez les cellules Scrambled et Knock-Down. Ces résultats suggèrent que Nlrx1 serait impliquée dans la régulation de l’équilibre entre la nécrose et l’apoptose, en favorisant la survie cellulaire. Nlrx1 pourrait alors servir de molécule neuroprotectrice dans les maladies médiées par le stress oxydatif. / Abstract : Neuronal cell death is a phenomenon that occurs during brain development as well as in pathological diseases. Depending on the environment in which the cells are; a poptosis or necrosis can contribute to neuronal cell death. Necrosis produces an environment that promotes inflammation and cytotoxicity and apoptosis is a highly organized process that maintains tissue homeostasis. A recently discovered NOD receptor, Nlrx1, is thought to play a role in regulation of inflammation and cell death during infection. Therefore, we hypothesize that Nlrx1 plays a neuroprotective role by controlling cell death in neurons. To determine the protective mechanism of Nlrx1 in vitro, a Knock-Down, a Knock-In and a Scrambled control of Nlrx1 in N2a cells was generated. LDH assays for cell death detection with staurosporine or oxidative stress, such as rotenone, MPP+ or H[subscript 2]O[subscript 2], have been done. After 24h treatment of staurosporine, N2a Knock-In cells showed higher cell death than N2a Knock-Down and Scrambled. When cells were treated with rotenone or H[subscript 2]O[subscript 2], N2a Knock-In cells had less cell death than Scrambled cells. N2a Knock-Down cells resulted in more cell death than Scrambled cells when treated with rotenone or MPP+.Western Blotting of HSP90 and HMGB1 as well as flow cytometry of cell death demonstrated N2a Knock-In cells to have less necrotic cells when treated with rotenone compared to Scrambled. The ratio of necrotic cells on apoptotic cells was also higher in N2a Knock-Down cells compared to Scrambled cells. Electron microscopy of control cells showed that Knock-In cells contains more mitochondria than Knock-Down and Scrambled cells. These results were confirmed by mitotracker staining by flow cytometry. Western blotting showed that there was an increased in Knock-In cells of active phosphorylated-DRP1 protein, a protein implicated in mitochondrial fission. Thus, it could explain the increased number of mitochondria seen in Knock-In cells. Immunoprecipitation showed that Nlrx1 protein interacts with DRP1 as well as active phosphorylated-DRP1. Adding Mdivi, a mitochondrial fission inhibitor, to rotenone or H[subscript 2]O[subscript 2] treatments, cell death was increased in Knock-In cells compared to Scrambled. Also, necrosis was also augmented in Knock-In cells to levels comparable to Scramble and Knoc k-Down cells. These results suggest an implication for Nlrx1 in regulating the balance of necrosis to apoptosis, permitting cells to survive. Nlrx1 could serve as a neuroprotective molecule in diseases mediated by oxidative stress.

Thesis (PhD (Physiological Sciences))--University of Stellenbosch, 2009 / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Three main morphologies of cell death have been described in the diseased myocardium, type I, better known as apoptotic cell death, which is characterized by cell shrinkage and chromatin condensation, type II, or cell death with autophagy, presents a morphology with intracellular accumulation of autophagic vacuoles and type III, better known as necrosis, is characterized by cellular swelling and rapid loss in cellular membrane integrity. However, recent literature strongly argues against rigid classifications in the context of cell death mechanisms but rather suggests to adopt a view of cell death as a dynamic and integrative cellular response. Furthermore, the contribution of autophagy in cell death or cell survival is still poorly understood. Therefore the aims of this study were twofold: (i) to characterize the contribution of each cell death type in context of the severity and duration of an ischaemic insult and (ii) to determine whether manipulation of the autophagic pathway affects the contribution of cell death and translates into protection of the heart. Rodent derived cardiac myoblast cells were grown in Dulbecco’s Modified Eagle’s Medium (DMEM) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS), and incubated under 5% CO2 conditions. Cells were submitted to protocols of 2, 4 and 8 hrs of simulated ischaemia (SI) under hypoxic conditions in a humidified environment containing 0.1% O2, 5% CO2 and the balance N2, followed by 1 hr of reperfusion respectively. We employed a modified ischaemic buffer containing either 2-deoxy- D-glucose, sodium dithionate or both, with the aim to create an ischaemic insult of mild (mild SI), moderate (moderate SI) and severe (severe SI) character respectively. We evaluated the contribution of each cell death mode using a combination of viability- and ATP assays. Molecular markers for each cell death process such as LC3, PARP and HMGB1 were evaluated using 3-dimensional fluorescence techniques as well as western blot analysis and flow cytometry. Next, autophagy was induced or inhibited prior to the ischaemic insult, using rapamycin and 3MA respectively, and similar parameters were evaluated after 2 hours of mild or moderate SI. Propidium Iodide exclusion and Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) in combination with mitochondrial inner membrane depolarization were employed to assess the onset of cell death dynamically. Flow cytometry was employed to evaluate the degree of protection. In addition, the ATP levels and reactive oxygen species (ROS) were evaluated. Our results strongly indicate a differential induction of cell death, which is dependent on the severity and duration of the ischaemic insult. Mild SI led to the induction of autophagy and apoptosis, whilst moderate or severe SI induced both apoptotic and necrotic cell death without an indication of autophagy. Only mild SI, but not moderate and severe SI, resulted in an ATP surge. Moreover, our data provide direct evidence that increased autophagy delays the loss of cellular membrane integrity and delays caspase-3 activation as well as mitochondrial depolarization in ischaemic cardiomyocytes. Our results show a profound effect of increased autophagy on the onset of apoptosis as well as necrosis under simulated ischaemic conditions, providing cellular protection. This ATP surge observed during mild SI was abolished with increased autophagy. Furthermore, our results indicate a profound effect of autophagy on ROS generation. Under normoxic conditions, increased autophagy induced a significant decrease in ROS while the inhibition of autophagy significantly increased ROS generation. However, when increasing or decreasing autophagy prior to the ischaemic insult, ROS increased significantly in both scenarios. The results suggest that the severity of ischaemia determines the mode of cell death differentially. An increase in autophagic responsiveness and flux, as induced through rapamycin treatment, provides a selective advantage for tissue against injury, possibly by maintaining intracellular ATP levels through the provision of metabolic substrates. Autophagy is described as an inherent cellular mechanism v which affects the onset of cell death and exhibits protective effects in the ischaemic myocardium when upregulated prior to the ischaemic insult. The protective effect of increased autophagy was mirrored in the isolated perfused rat heart model, reflected by improved functional recovery during ischaemia/reperfusion. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die drie belangrikste morfologiese beskrywings van seldood in die hart sluit die volgende in: tipe I, beter bekend as apoptose wat gekenmerk word deur selkrimping en chromatienkondensering, tipe II, of seldood deur middel van autofagie wat gekenmerk word deur die intrasellulêre versameling van autofagiese vakuole en tipe III, beter bekend as nekrose wat gekenmerk word deur sel swelling en ‘n vinnige verlies aan membraanintegriteit. Onlangse literatuur waarsku egter teen die onbuigsame klassifikasie van seldoodmeganismes en stel voor dat seldood as ‘n dinamiese proses met integrerende sellulêre meganismes beskou moet word. Die bydrae van autofagie in seldoodmeganismes word ook nog nie goed verstaan nie. Die doel van hierdie studie is dus tweevoudig: (i) om die bydrae van elke tipe seldood te bepaal in konteks van die felheid en tydperk van die iskemiese ingryping en (ii) om te bepaal of the manupilering van autofagie ‘n betekenisvolle bydrae lewer in seldoodmeganismes en sodoende tot beskerming van die hart kan lei. Kardiale mioblaste wat van rotweefsel afkomstig is, is in Dulbecco se gemodifiseerde Eagle medium (DMEM), waarby daar 10% fetale kalfserum gevoeg is en wat onderhewig was aan 5% CO2 toestande, onderhou. Selle was onderhewig aan protokolle van 2, 4 en 8 ure gesimuleerde iskemie (SI) onder hipoksiese toestande in ‘n humiditeitsomgewing wat 0.1% O2, 5% CO2 en die balans N2 bevat. Daarna was die selle onderhewig aan 1 uur reperfusie. ‘n Gemodifiseerde iskemiese buffer wat óf 2-deoksie-D-glukose óf natriumdithionaat, of beide bevat, is gebruik om lig, matig en strawwe iskemiese toestande na te boots. Die bydrae van elke tipe seldood is geëvalueer tydens bogenoemde toestande deur gebruik te maak van ‘n kombinasie van sellewensvatbaarheid- en ATP tegnieke. Molekulêre merkers, wat LC3, PARP en HMGB1 insluit, is gebruik om deur middel van 3-dimensionele fluoresensie tegnieke, westelike kladtegnieke en vii vloeisitometrie die verskillende vorme van seldood te ondersoek. Autofagie is ook geïnduseer en geïnhibeer voor die iskemiese ingryping, deur middel van rapamycin en 3MA, respektiewelik om die rol van autofagie tydens seldood te bepaal. Propidium iodite uitluiting en fluoresensie resonansie energie oordrag (FRET) in kombinasie met ‘n merker vir mitochondriale binneste membraan depolarisasie is gebruik om die aanvang van seldood dinamies te ondersoek. Vloeisitometrie is gebruik om die graad van beskerming aan te dui, terwyl intrasellulêre ATP vlakke en reaktiewe suurstof spesies (ROS) ook gemeet is. Ons resultate het getoon dat daar ‘n differensiële indusering van seldood plaasvind wat afhanklik is van die felheid en tydsduur van die iskemiese ingryping. ‘n Ligte graad van iskemie lei tot die indusering van autofagie en apoptose, terwyl matige en strawwe iskemie beide apoptose en nekrose induseer sonder autofagie. Verder het slegs ‘n ligte graad van iskemie ‘n skerp styging in ATP tweeggebring, terwyl dit nie die geval was tydens matige en strawwe iskemie nie. Ons data verskaf ook direkte bewyse dat ‘n toename in autofagie die verlies van sellulêre membraanintegriteit vertraag. Dit het ook ‘n vermindering in caspase-3 aktivering en mitochondriale depolarisasie in iskemiese kardiomiosiete teweegebring. Die data dui aan dat ‘n toename in autofagie ‘n beduidende effek op apoptose en nekrose tydens gesimuleerde iskemiese toestande het om sodoende selbeskerming te verskaf. Die skerp styging in ATP wat tydens die ligte graad van iskemie teweeggebring is, is opgehef met ‘n toename in autofagie. Ons resultate dui ook daarop dat autofagie ‘n beduidende rol in ROS generering speel. Onder normoksiese omstandighede veroorsaak ‘n toename in autofagie ‘n insiggewende afname in ROS generering, terwyl die inhibisie van autofagie ROS generering insiggewend laat toeneem. Wanneer autofagie egter voor die iskemiese ingryping verhoog of verlaag word, vermeerder ROS generering in beide gevalle. Hierdie resultate bewys dat die graad van iskemie ‘n invloed het op die tipe seldood wat geïnduseer word. ‘n Toename in autofagie reaksietyd en vloei, soos viii bewerkstellig deur rapamycin, verskaf ‘n selektiewe voordeel vir weefsel teen beskadiging, heel waarskynlik deur die handhawing van intrasellulêre ATP-vlakke deur die verskaffing van metaboliese substrate. Autofagie word beskryf as ‘n inherente sellulêre meganisme wat seldood beïnvloed en die iskemiese miokardium beskerm wanneer dit opgereguleer word voor die iskemiese ingryping. Hierdie beskermende rol van autofagie wat in die weefselkultuur waargeneem is, is ook in die geïsoleerde geperfuseerde rot hart model waargeneem, waar funksionele herstel verbeter is tydens iskemie/reperfusie.

<p>Programmed cell death, or apoptosis, has during the last decade received a lot of attention due to its involvement in a large number of pathological conditions. Since death is always irreversible, it is important for cells to fully control the initiation and execution of this process. One of many apoptosis-regulatory proteins is XIAP, which blocks the action of caspases, a family of proteases that are important during apoptosis. However, apoptosis inhibitors have to be tightly controlled since too little cell death can lead to the development of tumors and other diseases. This thesis is the result of an aspiration to fully understand the function and regulation of XIAP.</p><p>By using the yeast-2-hybrid system, we identified two novel binding partners of XIAP. The first, GPS2, was found to bind XIAP and inhibit its ability to block caspase-activity. In addition, GPS2 induced caspase-mediated cell death in two different tumour cell lines and XIAP inhibited this effect.</p><p>The second binding partner, Nulp1, preferentially bound XIAP in the presence of the apoptosis-inducer staurosporine. Nulp1 induced or sensitized cell lines to cell death when overexpressed, but this was not blocked by caspase-inhibitors or XIAP, suggesting a different reason for binding than apoptosis regulation. With the aim to understand the Nulp1-XIAP interaction, we continued to study Nulp1 <i>in vivo</i> and <i>in vitro</i>. We studied three different splice variants of Nulp1 and found that they were regulated by poly-ubiquitination and nuclear shuttling. Also, Nulp1 was expressed in embryonic mice, especially in the cortical plate, hippocampal neurons and cerebellar granular neurons. Expression of Nulp1 decreased with age but was still present in cerebellar deep nuclei and Purkinje cells of adult mice. </p><p>To summarize, we have identified GPS2 as an apoptosis-inducing factor and an inhibitor of XIAP <i>in vitro</i>, and Nulp1 as a XIAP-interacting protein during staurosporine-induced apoptosis.</p>

Besides exerting cytostatic or cytotoxic effects on tumor cells, some anti-cancer therapies (anthracyclines, oxaliplatin, X-Rays) could trigger an immunogenic cell death modality, releasing danger signals to alert immune system. We have shown that tumor-specific IFN- producing CD8+ T cells (Tc1) are mandatory for the success of chemotherapy to prevent tumor outgrowth. Priming of Tc1 response depends on IL-1β secretion by DC confronted with anthracycline-treated tumor cells releasing ATP. To identify the inflammatory components which link innate and cognate immune responses, we analyzed the influence of immunogenic chemotherapy on tumor microenvironment. We found an upregulated Th1- and Th17-related gene expression pattern in growth-retarded tumor after anthracycline treatment. By interfering with IFN- or IL-17A pathways, therapeutic effect of doxorubicin and oxaliplatin was abolished and dying tumor cell-based vaccine lost its efficacy to protect mice from live tumor cell rechallenge. Interestingly, we discovered that distinct subsets of  T lymphocytes (V4+ and V6+) colonized tumors shortly after chemotherapy, where they proliferated and became the dominant IL-17 producers within tumor beds. In three tumor models treated with chemotherapy or radiotherapy, a strong correlation between the presence of IL-17-producing  T ( T17) and IFN--producing CD8+ TIL (Tc1) was discovered. IL-17A signaling acts as upstream of IFN- since defect in IL-17RA led to complete loss of antigen specific Tc1 priming. The contribution of  T17 cells (V4+ and V6+) to chemotherapy is critical as V4/6-/- mice showed reduced sensitivity to chemotherapy and vaccination. Also, tumor infiltrating  T17 and Tc1 cells were reduced to basal level in this strain. IL-1β/IL-1R, but not IL-23/IL-23R, is pivotal for IL-17 production by  T cells and the success of chemotherapy. Importantly, adoptive transfer of  T cells could restore the efficacy of chemotherapy in IL-17A-/- mice and ameliorate the effect of chemotherapy in wild type host, provided that they retain the expression of IL-1R and IL-17A. Our research suggest a DC (IL-1β) →  T cells (IL-17) → Tc1 (IFN-) immune axis triggered by chemotherapy-induced dying tumor cells, which is critical for the favorable therapeutic response. To boost the immune system, we try to combine immunogenic chemotherapy with tumor vaccine in the presence of TLR3 agonist Poly (A:U). This sequential combined therapy, which we named VCT, could significantly retard tumor growth or even completely eradicate tumor and establish long-term protection against rechallenge in highly tumorigenic models. To dissect the effect of Poly (A:U) on immune system and that on TLR3 expressing-tumor cells, we performed VCT treatment in nude mice, TRIF-/- mice and with TRIF-silencing tumors. Interestingly, our results suggested that anti-tumor effect of VCT required T cells and intact TRIF signaling pathway at the level of the host and that of tumor cells. Poly (A:U) treatment could induce high level of CCL5 and CXCL10 production from tumor cells both in vitro and in vivo, which could negatively and positively influence the therapeutic outcome. By uncoupling the effect of CCL5 from that of CXCL10, the VCT treatment can be ameliorated. Our study emphasizes that both tumor and host derived inflammatory factors participate in regulating anti-tumor response. We also highlight that therapeutic application of TLR agonists can be optimized through regulating the profile of chemokines and their downstream signaling events.