The present dissertation ia an analysis in the history of ideas of the 12th-century Persian-Islamic thinker Abß Hamid Muhammad al-Ghazâlî's political ideas and his political reversal, ie. his abandonment of a religiously-influenced political theory in favour of a Persian-influenced political theory. This study is based upon source studies and a comparison between his manual for government and other writings in which his political ideas are expressed, along with a comparative study of his manual and other manuals of the same period. The dissertation begins with a description of the socio-political conditions of the 11th- and 12th-century Islam and provides a background to the seizing of power in the eastern region of the Islamic realm by the Central Asian Turks, accenting their relationship to the militarily and politically enfeebled c Abbasid caliphate in Baghdad. The dissertation also describes the status of political theory in the Islamic world and the various political currents of the era. During his lifetime, al-Ghazâlî was one of the foremost authorities of Islamic theology, honoured with the title Hujjat al-Islam, "sign of Islam". He was also a respected critic of Islamic philosophy who in one of his books proclaimed the caliphate to be the religiously and logically necessary head of Islam. In the mid-1090s al-Ghazâlî went through a spiritual crisis which led to his stepping down from his post as head of Nizâmiyya school in Baghdad, subsequently affiliating himself with Stjfîsm and retiring from public life. Having reemerged at the begining of the I2th century al-Ghazâlî wrote his manual Nasîhat al-Multik (Counsel for Kings) for the Saljfiq sultan Sanjar, where he in contrast to his earlier political writings employed pre-Islamic Persian ideas, eg. the idea of the ruler as being chosen by God, Farr-i îzadî (divine radiance), and the principle of justice. He now proclaimed the sultân to be the head of the Islamic state and elevated the Turkish sultan to "God's shadow on earth", not once mentioning the role of the caliphate. Furthermore, he made use of numerous fabricated Persian narratives in this book, presenting the pre-Islamic Persian era as a lost Golden Age. The present dissertation studies whether al-Ghazâlî's "conversion" to Sûfîsm in the 1090s played a role in his political reversal and his use of pre-Islamic Persian ideas, or if this should be interpreted as a literary conceit typicall such manuals. Moreover, the dissertation examines whether his transition to a Persian-influenced political theory implies a change in and therefore an abndonment of his fundamental political ideals, or if one may instead speak of a form of continuity in his political thought. This would mean that these new ideas should be seen as novel, normative sources which al-Ghazâlî employed in order to retain his fundamental political ideals under the pressure of the changed political climate. / <p>Diss. Umeå : Univ., 1994</p> / digitalisering@umu

Changes in land use and water use can greatly impact the cycling of water and water-borne substances. Increased redistribution of river water to irrigated fields can cause enhanced evapotranspiration and decreased river discharge. Additionally, the water quality can be affected by the external input of fertilisers and pesticides, and by changed pollutant transport pathways in expansive irrigation canal systems. This thesis examines basin-scale changes in water use, river discharge, water quality and nitrogen (N) loading under conditions of intensified irrigated agriculture, using the Aral Sea drainage basin (ASDB) with its two large rivers Syr Darya and Amu Darya in Central Asia as study area. Results show that more efficient irrigation techniques could reduce outtake of river water to the cotton fields in the ASDB by about 10 km3/year, while the corresponding river water saving at the outlet would be 60% lower. The result illustrates the importance of accounting for return flows of irrigation water in basin-scale water saving assessments. Moreover, a decrease in riverine N concentrations at the outlet of the Amu Darya River Basin (ADRB) was observed during a 40-year period of increasing N fertiliser input. The decrease was identified to be primarily caused by increased recirculation of river water in the irrigation system, leading to increased flow-path lengths and enhanced N attenuation. Decreasing N loads were shown to be primarily related to reduced discharge. N export from the basin may further decrease due to projected discharge reductions related to climate change. Furthermore, nutrients and metals were occasionally found at concentrations above drinking water guideline values in surface waters in the ADRB. However, metal concentrations in groundwater in the lower ADRB were subject to orders of magnitude higher health hazards. Projected decrease in downstream surface water availability would thus imply decreased access to water suitable for drinking. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 4: Submitted. Paper 5: Manuscript.</p>

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本文由新安全觀角度研究石油能源安全，由安全分析發現，任何影響石油供給的課題，都會成為安全議題的指涉對象；二戰結束後，因戰爭需求的石油使用動機轉變成為經濟發展的目的，因此經濟互動對能源安全的影響，加上自70年代末期後核能使用對環境破壞帶來的不確定性，更加重石油在能源市場的重要性，另一方面，環境議題的重視在90年代以來成為影響石油能源安全的重要「功能性行為者」，所以國際能源安全大致受到能源生產消費自身的限制、經濟發展與能源產業的互動，及環境管制的三面向的領域作用影響。 由區域安全分析的層次來看，資源蘊藏與地域分配有密切關係，在60年代後石油躍升成主要的能源來源，加上石油輸出國家組織的成立，使石油生產集中的情況更加明顯，面對政治夾雜經濟的複雜供需情況，使區域安全分析成為研究能源安全的重要途徑。本文以美國涉足中亞之石油能源安全為例發現，因為能源生產分配集中，使油氣產地對更具戰略意義，然政治因素仍是目前影響美國石油安全的重要變因，但經濟及環境發展在能源安全政策整體制定上仍是不可或缺的內涵。 / The thesis is aimed to make the study of oil energy security in the viewpoint of new security concept. In the framework of security analysis, what may affect the oil security of supply will be possible to be the reference object of security agenda. And after the WW II, the purpose of oil using form the war fighting to economic development emphasize the importance between the energy security and economic interaction. With the environmental destruction uncertainties resulting from the nuclear using, the environmental issue became the main factor— the functional behavior within the framework of energy security analysis. Thus, international energy security is concerned by the aspects of the self-limitation of energy supplier, the interaction between the economic development and energy industries, and the environmental regulation. We can reach the conclusion that there is the close relation between the energy resource and regional distribution with the regional level of security analysis. In 60s, oil raise to be the main global energy source, and phenomenon of oil production centralization became more obvious after the foundation of OPEC. Facing the situation mixed with the energy supply and demand because of the political and economic reasons, it is the best method to take the way of regional security analysis to make the study of energy security. Besides, it concludes that the oil production place become more strategic as making the study of “American oil energy security policy set foot in Central Asia”. At the present time, political factor still ruling guides the American oil energy security; however, the environment development is indispensable in making the whole energy security policy.

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Religious experience is a narrative reality, while it certainly relates to doctrines and rituals, it is embodied by the stories people tell which express the meaning of conversion as understood by the converts themselves. In order to enter this narrative world we must engage the actual stories told by converts, making space for their narratives as they make meaning of their experiences and thus open windows on the emic perspective. Sometimes this happens through stories that are largely thematic—expressing conversion in mainly one metaphor. Other times, narratives may touch on many different ideas, allowing us to discern various internal structures, such as some of the factors leading to conversion. Nevertheless, as important as these narratives are, they are only part of the picture because religious conversion always takes place in context. Therefore, if we are to properly understand the deeply personal experience we call conversion, we must frame it within the social, cultural and historical currents swirling around that experience. The conversions in this study are rooted in the religious history of Central Asia, particularly the seventy-odd years of Soviet rule. By the end of that era, it is probably more appropriate to think in terms of localized islam, rather than a universal religion based on the text of the Quran. Not only so, but the once proudly distinct Muslim peoples, now living under Russian rule, had become enculturated into Russian patterns of life, thought, and worldview, a process referred to as Russification, something which had profound effects on the way some of them have experienced conversion away from their natal religion. This study examines both of these aspects, first the contextual and then the personal, through the stories of thirty-six Muslims who converted to faith in Christ in post-Soviet Central Asia. By exploring the deeply personal and the broadly contextual together, this study offers a clear view of the meaning of religious conversion, in a historical, social, and religious context. / Religious Studies and Arabic / D.Lit. et Phil. (Religious Studies)

This thesis examines the influence of state identity narratives on regional cooperation frameworks in Central Asia. It applies the perspectives of ontological security theory to the self-articulation of state identities of Kyrgyzstan and Turkmenistan to decipher socialization mechanisms in each of the cases. Consequently, it traces the routinization of the state narratives of Kyrgyzstan and Turkmenistan toward the region and regional organizations. Ontological security theory argues that, in addition to physical security, states seek ideational security, security of identity and security of being. Using a grounded theory approach to study the formation of the state narratives of Kyrgyzstan and of Turkmenistan and utilizing official and media sources and interviews conducted during fieldwork, the thesis analyzes the process of routinization of state identity narratives, showcasing the narrators, the narratives and the processes of self-articulation. The key process that is traced is the routinization of the state narratives, i.e. the sequence of repeated actions (inter-textualized through speech acts and textual references) that transform the self-articulated stories of the states into the realm of the habitual. This process of routinization is then analyzed within the regional context, examining how these routinized narratives influence inter-state cooperation in Central Asia. As such, the thesis contributes to two main bodies of literature: the growing literature on the ideational aspects of regional cooperation in Central Asia; and existing research on the role of state identification practices in the foreign policies of Central Asian states.

Central Asia is a region strategically located at the crossroads of the two continents: Asia and Europe. The region is represented by five states (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan) with different level of economic development and with the population amounting to over 60 million people. The region is rich in energy resources represented by oil, gas, coal and water resources. The thesis analyses, assesses and scrutinises one of the topical issues of the contemporary international relations - cooperation between the European Union and Central Asian states before and after adoption in June 2007 of the ‘European Union and Central Asia: Strategy for a New Partnership’,  an important political document in the history of relations between the two parties. The new stage of cooperation is analysed more comprehensively accentuating priorities set in the Strategy. Analysis of the current state of affairs is conducted concerning some important issues of the Strategy related to regional cooperation between Central Asian states, such as integrated water management and development of hydro-energy system, issues of diversification of hydrocarbons supply routes from the region to Europe and provision of energy security, etc. Issues of cooperation between the European Union and Tajikistan are analysed as a case study. State of affairs between the Central Asian states and the European Union Member States actively cooperating with these countries is characterised. The thesis also scrutinises other regional/international actors engaged in cooperation with Central Asia (such as China, Russia, the US, Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, etc.) and their potential for interaction with the European Union for more effective joint solution of the problems existing in the region is assessed. In the conclusion, development of cooperation between the European Union and Central Asian states is scrutinised, the problems and their possible solutions in this regard are analysed, and the recommendations for increasing effectiveness of cooperation between the two parties are presented. The European Union’s policy in Central Asia is interpreted from perspective of the theories of international relations namely neorealism, neoliberalism and constructivism in the research.

15 Abstract The following thesis summarizes results of the archaeological research in the microregion of the Zarabag Oasis in the South Uzbekistan. The non-destructive research focused on the collection and evaluation of the archaeological data that allow to reconstruct the settlement dynamics in the oasis during the ages. Previously, there was not archaeological evidence available in the region. The fieldwork in the oasis and its closest surroundings was conducted by way of extensive surface survey (global coverage of the oasis focused on the detection of archaeological evidence), and intensive one (systematic surface survey on a closely defined area). The extensive survey proved to be more suitable for the studied environment in terms of the quality and quantity of the collected archaeological data. One part of the survey consisted in detection of the water sources (springs, surface canals and even remains of the karez systems). The basic units of extensive survey were represented by polygons (gardens, fields, cemeteries, tepas etc.), to which the finds collected during the research were attributed. Their dating in the combination with their spatial distribution allowed then to reconstruct the settlement processes and dynamics in the microregion of the oasis. One part of the research deals also with the...

Cette thèse vise à analyser les enjeux et les conséquences la consommation énergétique dans les pays anciennement communistes d’Europe et d’Asie Centrale (EAC). Plus particulièrement, nous soulevons la question des politiques économiques à mettre en place afin d’améliorer l’efficacité énergétique dans cette région et analysons les conséquences en termes de pollution et de croissance de la spécialisation intensive en énergie de leurs économies.Le système d’économie planifié a profondément altéré les structures économiques et la trajectoire de consommation énergétique de ces pays. En effet, une des empreintes restantes de l’économie de type soviétique réside dans l’importante intensité énergétique et la forte spécialisation des pays EAC dans les industries intensives en énergie. Les récentes crises géopolitiques vis-à-vis de la Russie, l’épuisement des ressources énergétiques fossiles ainsi que la problématique environnementale mettent en exergue l’importance de la question énergétique dans ces pays.La présente thèse s’intéresse plus spécifiquement à deux problèmes fondamentaux. Comment améliorer les performances énergétiques des pays Est-Européens ? Et quel est l’impact de la spécialisation dans les industries structurellement intensives en énergie sur la croissance des pays EAC ?Dans le premier chapitre, nous analysons les fondations microéconomiques de la demande énergétique en se focalisant sur les déficiences de marché qui peuvent contraindre l’efficacité énergétique des firmes. Nous nous intéressons en particulier à l’effet relié au développement financier. L’inefficience des marchés financiers est une des principales explications du « paradoxe d’efficience énergétique », mais n’a pour l’instant pas été empiriquement démontré. Les résultats empiriques de ce chapitre montrent que les marchés financiers locaux jouent un rôle important dans la consommation énergétique des firmes.Le chapitre 2 examine dans quelle mesure la réglementation environnementale de l’Union Européenne (UE) impacte la spécialisation des pays est-européens dans les industries polluantes. En ce sens, ce chapitre traite de la question centrale du développement de havres de pollution en Europe de l’Est. Nos résultats indiquent que les exportations des pays EAC vers un pays de l’UE sont relativement plus importantes dans des secteurs polluants lorsque ce pays a dû mettre en place des mesures environnementales. Cet effet est rendu robuste au biais de variables omises grâce à l’inclusion d’un ensemble d’effets fixes. De plus, le problème potentiel de causalité inverse est traité grâce à l’utilisation d’un instrument exogène de politique environnementale basé sur les conditions climatiques des pays.Au-delà des problèmes liés à l’environnement, le chapitre 3 analyse les conséquences économiques de la spécialisation dans des industries énergivores dans la région EAC. En effet, cette spécialisation est un héritage direct de l’ancien système d’économie planifiée. L’économie planifiée de type soviétique a façonné une spécialisation dans des secteurs industriels très énergivores, et ce indépendamment des caractéristiques structurelles spécifiques des différents pays de l’ancien bloc de l’Est. La volonté idéologique et les distorsions de marché dans ces économies ont été les principaux moteurs d’un surdéveloppement des industries extrêmement énergivores. L’effet de la sur-spécialisation dans les industries intensives en énergie est strictement négatif et significatif dans toutes nos estimations. Ce résultat est robuste et met en exergue des symptômes de « maladie soviétique ». Les pays anciennement communistes qui maintiennent des distorsions de spécialisation dans les secteurs industriels développés sous le système d’économie planifiée font face à de moins bonnes performances économiques. Ainsi, maintenir une spécialisation industrielle intensive en énergie est inefficace aussi bien d’un point de vue environnemental que d’un point de vue économique. / The current thesis raises important issues about the drivers able to improve energy intensity of the Eastern Europe and Central Asia (ECA) region from both an efficiency point of view and in terms of structural specialization in energy-intensive sectors. In particular, we question about the rationale of keeping a high degree of specialization in energy-intensive sectors, given that this specialization was primarily based on the mechanisms of the former planned economy system. This dissertation consists of three empirical essays studying these issues.We focus on two main questions. How to improve energy and pollution performances of the ECA countries? And how the over-specialization in energy-intensive sectors affects their economic growth? The first question is examined in Chapters 1 and 2, whereas the second question is discussed in Chapter 3.To address these issues there is a need to analyze the two components of the energy intensity, namely the energy efficiency and the structural specialization in energy intensive sectors, with the adequate levels of investigation. To cover the scope of the different problems raised by the legacy of high energy intensity in the ECA countries, I thus rely on micro-, sector- and macro-level analysis. Chapter 1 considers the market constraints to firm-level energy efficiency and examines whether the financial development explains the firm-level energy efficiency. Then, using bilateral export flows at the industry-level, Chapter 2 studies how environmental policy inside the EU influences the energy- and pollution- intensive specialization in ECA countries that are not EU members. More specifically, this chapter aims to exhibit to what extent the EU environmental stringency fosters the pollution havens in the ECA region by stimulating exports in energy-intensive sectors. And finally, Chapter 3 seeks to provide macroeconomic evidence about the growth consequences of the maintaining of a specialization highly oriented towards energy-intensive sectors. This ultimate chapter tries to identify whether over-specialization in energy-intensive sectors is negative for growth performances in this region.