Le syndrome d'Ondine est une pathologie caractérisée par une abolition de la chémosensibilité au CO2/H+. Des données cliniques suggèrent que le désogestrel, un progestatif de la famille des gonanes, induit une récupération de la chémosensibilité (Straus et al., 2010). Ce travail avait pour objectif de mieux comprendre les mécanismes centraux par lesquels l'étonogestrel (ETO, le métabolite du désogestrel) permettrait d'induire une récupération de la chémosensibilité. Pour cela des approches pharmacologiques ont été couplées à de l'histologie fonctionnelle sur des préparations ex vivo de système nerveux central de rat nouveau-né. Les résultats obtenus ont mis en évidence qu’une exposition à l’ETO, dans une gamme de concentration proche de l’exposition clinique, renforce la réponse respiratoire au CO2/H+ et ce uniquement en présence du diencéphale. Plus précisément ce mécanisme aurait pour origine l’activation des neurones orexinergiques. L’analyse du profil d’expression de c-fos a montré que des structures du tronc cérébral, impliquées dans l’adaptation de la commande centrale respiratoire, étaient activées ou suractivées en présence d’ETO. Pour la majorité leur activation ou suractivation semblent dépendre de la signalisation orexinergique puisque l’effet de l’ETO est absent lors de l’antagonisation des récepteurs à l’orexine. Nous émettons alors l’hypothèse que la récupération de la chémosensibilité au CO2/H+ sous désogestrel implique, au moins en partie, les voies neuronales révélées dans notre étude. / Ondine’s curse is a disease characterized by a dysfunction of the CO2/H+ chemosensitivity. Clinical observation suggest that desogestrel, a progestin of the gonane family, have induced a recovery of CO2/H+ chemosensitivity (Straus et al., 2010).This work aimed to have a better understanding of the central mechanisms by which etonogestrel (ETO, the metabolite of desogestrel) may have induced a recovery of CO2/H+ chemosensitivity. Pharmacological exposures and c-fos expression analysis were performed in parallel on ex vivo preparations of central nervous system from newborn rats.Our results indicated that ETO strengthens the respiratory response to metabolic acidosis in a range of concentration close to the clinical exposure, by a diencephalic-dependent mechanism. More precisely our results suggested that this effect relied on the activation of diencephalic orexinergic neurons. Besides, the analysis of the c-fos expression revealed that ETO over-activated and activated several respiratory-related brainstem structures. For most of them their activation or overactivation seems to depend on the orexinergic signalisation since the increase in c-fos expression observed in response to ETO is no longer present when orexinergic receptors are antagonized. We assume that our results highlighted, at least in part, the neuronal pathway used by ETO to induce a recovery of the CO2/H+ chemosensitivity in Ondine patients.Our data open up pieces of reflexion about conditions about the mechanisms, underlined the recovery of CO2/H+ chemosensitivity in Ondine patients.

A l'éveil comme au cours du sommeil, en plaine comme en haute altitude, le maintien d'une oxygénation artérielle stable et élevée est un marqueur essentiel d'une bonne réponse physiologique de l'organisme. L'intolérance à l'altitude regroupe des pathologies graves voire fatales dont le développement est en lien direct avec le taux d'oxygénation artériel des sujets. D'autre part, en plaine, la prévalence élevée du syndrome d'apnées obstructives du sommeil (SAOS) incite les chercheurs au développement de modèles d'études spécifiques, permettant d'investiguer les conséquences du principal stimulus du SAOS : l'hypoxie intermittente. La chémosensibilité pourrait avoir un impact important dans ces deux pathologies, ayant pour rôle le maintien des gaz du sang à des valeurs normales, en adaptant la ventilation aux conditions externes ou internes à l'organisme.Les objectifs de ce travail étaient de comprendre l'impact de la chémosensibilité (avec d'autres mécanismes décrits dans la littérature) sur l'oxygénation et la tolérance à l'altitude, d'étudier les effets de la résistance expiratoire sur l'amélioration de l'oxygénation, ainsi que les conséquences de l'hypoxie intermittente chronique sur la plasticité du chémoréflexe.Il en ressort que la chémosensibilité périphérique à l'hypoxie a un impact majeur sur le développement de l'intolérance à l'altitude. Cela semble en outre être un facteur prédictif de la survenue de ces pathologies. En hypoxie, une amélioration efficace de l'oxygénation a été obtenue par l'utilisation d'une résistance expiratoire calibrée à 10 cm H2O permettant l'amélioration de la diffusion alvéolo-capillaire. L'exposition à l'hypoxie intermittente chronique nocturne a provoqué une fragmentation du sommeil ainsi qu'une intensification de la chémosensibilité à l'hypoxie et à l'hypercapnie.Ainsi, une altération de la réponse des corps carotidiens à l'hypoxémie participerait au développement du mal aigu des montagnes et de ses complications, tout en facilitant sa prédiction avant ascension. L'utilisation d'une résistance expiratoire pourrait permettre de combler la désaturation exagérée retrouvée chez les sujets sensibles à l'altitude lors d'un séjour en haute montagne. Il apparaît également que la chémosensiblité périphérique et centrale (CO2 et O2) fasse preuve d'une plasticité importante en réponse à l'hypoxie intermittente nocturne chez des sujets sains. / At awakening and during sleep, at sea level or in high altitude, maintaining a high level in arterial blood oxygenation is a marker for an adaptated physiological response external and internal factors.High altitude illness encompasses pathologies, that sometimes could be fatal, and which seems to be correlated with the level of arterial oxygenation in hypoxia.Secondly, at sea level and in general population, the high prevalence of obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS) encourage scientists to develop new models for studying consequences of the main OSAS' stimulus: intermittent hypoxia.Chemosensitivity could play an important role in those two different diseases, with regulation of blood gases and homeostasis by controlling ventilation.Our objectives was to investigate (1) impact of chemosensitivity on blood oxygenation and tolerance to high altitude, comparatively to other physiological factors commonly involved, (2) effects of using positive expiratory pressure in order to improve oxygenation in hypoxia, and (3) consequences of chronic exposure to nocturnal intermittent hypoxia on chemoreflexe plasticity.We found that peripheral chemoresponse to hypoxia play a crucial role in high altitude illness development. Moreover, this variable seems to be a predictive factor for those diseases. In hypoxic conditions, using a positive expiratory pressure (10 cmH2O) lead to a significant improve in arterial oxygenation, by increasing pulmonary diffusion. Finally, nocturnal intermittent hypoxia induced significant sleep disturbances and major changes in chemoresponse to hypoxia and hypercapnia.

Gastric and esophagogastric junction cancers are heterogeneous and aggressive tumors with an unpredictable response to cytotoxic treatment. New methods allowing for the analysis of drug resistance are needed. Here, we describe a novel technique by which human tumor specimens can be cultured ex vivo, preserving parts of the natural cancer microenvironment. Using a tissue chop- per, fresh surgical tissue samples were cut in 400 μm slices and cultivated in 6-well plates for up to 6 days. The slices were processed for routine histopa- thology and immunohistochemistry. Cytokeratin stains (CK8, AE1/3) were ap- plied for determining tumor cellularity, Ki-67 for proliferation, and cleaved caspase-3 staining for apoptosis. The slices were analyzed under naive conditions and following 2–4 days in vitro exposure to 5-FU and cisplatin. The slice culture technology allowed for a good preservation of tissue morphology and tumor cell integrity during the culture period. After chemotherapy exposure, a loss of tumor cellularity and an increase in apoptosis were observed. Drug sensitivity of the tumors could be assessed. Organotypic slice cultures of gastric and es- ophagogastric junction cancers were successfully established. Cytotoxic drug effects could be monitored. They may be used to examine mechanisms of drug resistance in human tissue and may provide a unique and powerful ex vivo platform for the prediction of treatment response.

The mammalian adrenal gland (or suprarenal gland) is a small organ located on the superior aspect of the kidney. The central region of the gland, the medulla, consists of chromaffin cells, which release catecholamines into the blood during periods of stress. This is best known as the 'fight or flight' response and is regulated, in the adult animal, by neuronal signals from the cholinergic sympathetic fibres of the splanchnic nerve. Interestingly, in some mammals, such as rat and human, sympathetic innervation is immature at birth, yet the chromaffin cells can still secrete catecholamines in response to physiological stessors, e.g. hypoxia. Increased plasma catecholamines is thought to provide a vital protective role for the neonatal animal during, and following birth. This is mediated in part by promoting lung fluid absorption, surfactant secretion, heart rate stabilization, and brown fat mobilization. The observation that, in the neonate, catecholamines are secreted in the absence of functional sympathetic innervation suggests that the chromaffin cells possess other mechanisms for directly 'sensing' a fall in blood O2 tension (hypoxia). The primary goal of this thesis was to uncover the mechanisms of oxygen-sensing in developing chromaffin cells from the rat and mouse, using primary short-term cell cultures of chromaffin cells. The experimental approaches relied on patch clamp techniques to record ionic currents and membrane potential, carbon fibre electrochemistry to record catecholamine secretion from cell clusters, and fluorescent indicators to measure reactive oxygen species generation. Hypoxic chemosensitivity was found in embryonic and neonatal, but not juvenile chromaffin cells from both the rat and mouse. Exposure to hypoxia or anoxia caused a reversible suppression of whole-cell current, which was comprised of the differential modulation of three K+ currents: (1) suppression of a large-conductance Ca2+-dependent K+ current; (2) suppression of a delayed rectifier K+ current; and (3) activation of an ATP-sensitive K+ current. Hypoxia also induced membrane depolarization that was not initiated by any of these three voltage-dependent K+ currents. Additionally, hypoxia broadened action potentials in chromaffin cells that showed spontaneous activity, and this was mediated by a prolongation of the time course of membrane repolarization. All of these factors likely contribute to catecholamine secretion by enhancing the influx of Ca2+ through depolarization-activated L-type Ca2+ channels. Two sets of experiments were designed to identify the oxygen sensor in neonatal chromaffin cells. First, cells from transgenic mice, deficient in the gp91^phox component of the putative O2-sensor protein, NADPH oxidase, responded to hypoxia in the same way as wild type cell, indicating that NADPH oxidase is not primarily responsible for oxygen sensitivity in these cells. Second, inhibitors of the proximal electron transport chain (e.g. rotenone and antimycin A) mimicked and attenuated the hypoxic response, while inhibitors of the distal electron transport chain (cyanide) and uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation (2,4-dinitrophenol) had no effect. Furthermore, reactive oxygen species production, primarily H2O2, decreased during exposure to hypoxia or inhibitors of the proximal electron transport chain, revealing a potential mitochondrial mechanism for 'sensing' of the hypoxic stimulus. Reduced oxygen availability to the electron transport chain is proposed to cause a fall in cellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), principally H2O2. This fall in ROS signals closure of Ca2+-dependent and Ca2+-independent K+ channels, which causes broadening action potentials and increases Ca2+ influx. The latter is further enhanced by the hypoxia-induced membrane depolarization, which in turn increases the probability of cell firing. The rise in intracellular Ca2+ then acts as the signal for catecholamine release from the chromaffin cells. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

O gene SPARC (secreted protein, acidic, cysteine-rich; também denominado de Osteonectina; BM-40) codifica uma proteína de 42kDa, membro de uma família de proteínas matricelular, que interagem com receptores de superfície celular, fatores de crescimento e componentes da matriz extracelular (ECM). SPARC desempenha importante papel no remodelamento de tecidos, migração celular, angiogênese, desenvolvimento embrionário, tumorigênese e quimiosensibilidade. O Docetaxel é um agente anti-microtúbulo pertencente à classe do taxanos, sendo utilizado como uma droga quimioterápica eficaz para o tratamento do câncer da mama avançado. No entanto, é considerável o número de pacientes que não respondem ou adquirem resistência ao tratamento com os taxanos. Os mecanismos envolvidos na resistência ao docetaxel ainda não estão completamente estabelecidos. Em um estudo prévio de nosso grupo, identificamos os transcritos do gene SPARC como diferencialmente expressos em células epiteliais mamárias expressando diferentes níveis de HER-2. No presente estudo, nós avaliamos o efeito da expressão do SPARC na sensibilidade de células de câncer de mama ao Docetaxel. As células MCF-7 foram transfectadas com o vetor de expressão pCMV6-SPARC ou pCMV6-Neo. PCR em tempo real, western blot e imunofluorescência foram utilizados para caracterizar os clones de células com expressão de SPARC. A taxa proliferativa não foi alterada de forma significativa pela expressão de SPARC. No entanto, observou-se um aumento da sensibilidade ao docetaxel em células MCF7 expressando SPARC em comparação com as células MCF7 controle sem expressão de SPARC, indicando que a expressão de SPARC tem propriedades de aumentar a quimiosensibilidade em células de câncer de mama. Utilizamos a técnica de cDNA microarray, para avaliar o perfil de expressão de células MCF7 com expressão de SPARC em comparação com células MCF7 sem expressão de SPARC antes e após tratamento com docetaxel 5nM e 100nM por 24h. Identificamos diversos genes potencialmente envolvidos na quimiosensibilidade ao docetaxel mediada por SPARC. Setenta genes mais diferencialmente expressos (expressão aumentada ou reduzida) foram selecionados a partir dos diferentes tratamentos e várias redes moleculares foram identificadas utilizando o Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA). Após anotação gênica seis genes, SPANXA1, ALDH1A3, TPM4, TARP, XAF1, e WNT5A foram selecionados e validados por qPCR. Utilizando análise proteômica quantitativa livre de marcação avaliamos ainda a ocorrência de alterações proteômicas na comparação das células MCF-7 com super-expressão de SPARC antes e após tratamento com docetaxel. Entre as redes de interação molecular, a via de remodelamento de citoesqueleto foi a via mais abundante observada na comparação entre as células MCF-7 com expressão de SPARC e as células controle sem expressão de SPARC antes do tratamento com docetaxel; e a via do metabolismo de GTP foi a via mais abundante observada na comparação entre as células MCF7 com expressão de SPARC e as células controle sem expressão de SPARC após tratamento com docetaxel. Na integração dos dados de transcriptoma e proteoma identificamos quarenta genes diferencialmente expressos pelas duas abordagens, sendo a via WNT representada entre eles. Nossos resultados sugerem que a expressão SPARC pode influenciar a quimiosensibilidade ao Docetaxel em células MCF-7, modulando genes envolvidos em diversos processos biológicos que podem estar relacionados com a sensibilidade a drogas / The SPARC (secreted protein, acidic, cysteine-rich) gene encodes a 42kDa protein that belongs to a family of matricellular proteins, which interact with cell-surface receptors, growth factors and the ECM (extracellular matrix) components. SPARC plays a role in tissue remodeling, cell migration, angiogenesis, embryonic development, tumorigenesis and chemiosensitivity. Docetaxel, which is an antimicrotubulin agent, is an effective chemotherapeutic drug for the treatment of advanced breast cancer. However, a considerable proportion of breast cancer patients do not respond positively to docetaxel. The mechanisms of docetaxel resistance are poorly understood. In a previous study, we identified SPARC as differentially expressed in mammary epithelial cells expressing different levels of HER-2. In the present study, we evaluate the effects of SPARC over-expression on the sensitivity of breast cancer cells to docetaxel. MCF7 cells were transfected with the expression vector pCMV6-SPARC or pCMV6-Neo. Real time PCR, western blot and immunofluorescence were used to characterize the clones over-expressing SPARC. Proliferation was not significantly affected by SPARC over-expression. However, we observed an increased sensitivity to docetaxel when comparing the MCF7 control cells with the MCF7 cells overexpressing SPARC, indicating that SPARC expression has chemosensitive properties in breast cancer cells. We used cDNA microarray to evaluate the expression profile of MCF7 cells with SPARC overexpression in comparison with MCF7 control cells before and after docetaxel treatment for 24h.We have identified several differentially expressed genes potentially involved in SPARC-mediated chemosensibility to docetaxel. Seventy of the highly expressed genes were selected from all treatments and several molecular networks were identified using the Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA). After manual annotation, six genes, SPANXA1, ALDH1A3, TPM4, TARP, XAF1, and WNT5A, potentially associated with SPARC mediated chemiosensitivity were selected and validated by qPCR. Using label-free approach for quantitative proteomic analysis, we further evaluated the proteomic changes in the comparison of the MCF7 cells control and over-expressing SPARC before and after docetaxel treatment. Among the molecular interaction networks, cytoskeleton remodeling pathway was the top pathway map observed in the comparison between MCF7 cells over-expressing SPARC and the control cells before docetaxel treatment and GTP metabolism pathway was the top pathway map observed in the comparison between MCF7 cells over-expressing SPARC and the control cells after docetaxel treatment. Transcriptome and proteome integrated data, resulted in forty commonly up and down regulated genes, being the WNT pathway represented among them. Our findings suggest that SPARC expression can influence Docetaxel sensitivity in MCF7 cells by modulating genes involved in diverse biologic process that might be related to drug sensitivity

O gene SPARC (secreted protein, acidic, cysteine-rich; também denominado de Osteonectina; BM-40) codifica uma proteína de 42kDa, membro de uma família de proteínas matricelular, que interagem com receptores de superfície celular, fatores de crescimento e componentes da matriz extracelular (ECM). SPARC desempenha importante papel no remodelamento de tecidos, migração celular, angiogênese, desenvolvimento embrionário, tumorigênese e quimiosensibilidade. O Docetaxel é um agente anti-microtúbulo pertencente à classe do taxanos, sendo utilizado como uma droga quimioterápica eficaz para o tratamento do câncer da mama avançado. No entanto, é considerável o número de pacientes que não respondem ou adquirem resistência ao tratamento com os taxanos. Os mecanismos envolvidos na resistência ao docetaxel ainda não estão completamente estabelecidos. Em um estudo prévio de nosso grupo, identificamos os transcritos do gene SPARC como diferencialmente expressos em células epiteliais mamárias expressando diferentes níveis de HER-2. No presente estudo, nós avaliamos o efeito da expressão do SPARC na sensibilidade de células de câncer de mama ao Docetaxel. As células MCF-7 foram transfectadas com o vetor de expressão pCMV6-SPARC ou pCMV6-Neo. PCR em tempo real, western blot e imunofluorescência foram utilizados para caracterizar os clones de células com expressão de SPARC. A taxa proliferativa não foi alterada de forma significativa pela expressão de SPARC. No entanto, observou-se um aumento da sensibilidade ao docetaxel em células MCF7 expressando SPARC em comparação com as células MCF7 controle sem expressão de SPARC, indicando que a expressão de SPARC tem propriedades de aumentar a quimiosensibilidade em células de câncer de mama. Utilizamos a técnica de cDNA microarray, para avaliar o perfil de expressão de células MCF7 com expressão de SPARC em comparação com células MCF7 sem expressão de SPARC antes e após tratamento com docetaxel 5nM e 100nM por 24h. Identificamos diversos genes potencialmente envolvidos na quimiosensibilidade ao docetaxel mediada por SPARC. Setenta genes mais diferencialmente expressos (expressão aumentada ou reduzida) foram selecionados a partir dos diferentes tratamentos e várias redes moleculares foram identificadas utilizando o Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA). Após anotação gênica seis genes, SPANXA1, ALDH1A3, TPM4, TARP, XAF1, e WNT5A foram selecionados e validados por qPCR. Utilizando análise proteômica quantitativa livre de marcação avaliamos ainda a ocorrência de alterações proteômicas na comparação das células MCF-7 com super-expressão de SPARC antes e após tratamento com docetaxel. Entre as redes de interação molecular, a via de remodelamento de citoesqueleto foi a via mais abundante observada na comparação entre as células MCF-7 com expressão de SPARC e as células controle sem expressão de SPARC antes do tratamento com docetaxel; e a via do metabolismo de GTP foi a via mais abundante observada na comparação entre as células MCF7 com expressão de SPARC e as células controle sem expressão de SPARC após tratamento com docetaxel. Na integração dos dados de transcriptoma e proteoma identificamos quarenta genes diferencialmente expressos pelas duas abordagens, sendo a via WNT representada entre eles. Nossos resultados sugerem que a expressão SPARC pode influenciar a quimiosensibilidade ao Docetaxel em células MCF-7, modulando genes envolvidos em diversos processos biológicos que podem estar relacionados com a sensibilidade a drogas / The SPARC (secreted protein, acidic, cysteine-rich) gene encodes a 42kDa protein that belongs to a family of matricellular proteins, which interact with cell-surface receptors, growth factors and the ECM (extracellular matrix) components. SPARC plays a role in tissue remodeling, cell migration, angiogenesis, embryonic development, tumorigenesis and chemiosensitivity. Docetaxel, which is an antimicrotubulin agent, is an effective chemotherapeutic drug for the treatment of advanced breast cancer. However, a considerable proportion of breast cancer patients do not respond positively to docetaxel. The mechanisms of docetaxel resistance are poorly understood. In a previous study, we identified SPARC as differentially expressed in mammary epithelial cells expressing different levels of HER-2. In the present study, we evaluate the effects of SPARC over-expression on the sensitivity of breast cancer cells to docetaxel. MCF7 cells were transfected with the expression vector pCMV6-SPARC or pCMV6-Neo. Real time PCR, western blot and immunofluorescence were used to characterize the clones over-expressing SPARC. Proliferation was not significantly affected by SPARC over-expression. However, we observed an increased sensitivity to docetaxel when comparing the MCF7 control cells with the MCF7 cells overexpressing SPARC, indicating that SPARC expression has chemosensitive properties in breast cancer cells. We used cDNA microarray to evaluate the expression profile of MCF7 cells with SPARC overexpression in comparison with MCF7 control cells before and after docetaxel treatment for 24h.We have identified several differentially expressed genes potentially involved in SPARC-mediated chemosensibility to docetaxel. Seventy of the highly expressed genes were selected from all treatments and several molecular networks were identified using the Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA). After manual annotation, six genes, SPANXA1, ALDH1A3, TPM4, TARP, XAF1, and WNT5A, potentially associated with SPARC mediated chemiosensitivity were selected and validated by qPCR. Using label-free approach for quantitative proteomic analysis, we further evaluated the proteomic changes in the comparison of the MCF7 cells control and over-expressing SPARC before and after docetaxel treatment. Among the molecular interaction networks, cytoskeleton remodeling pathway was the top pathway map observed in the comparison between MCF7 cells over-expressing SPARC and the control cells before docetaxel treatment and GTP metabolism pathway was the top pathway map observed in the comparison between MCF7 cells over-expressing SPARC and the control cells after docetaxel treatment. Transcriptome and proteome integrated data, resulted in forty commonly up and down regulated genes, being the WNT pathway represented among them. Our findings suggest that SPARC expression can influence Docetaxel sensitivity in MCF7 cells by modulating genes involved in diverse biologic process that might be related to drug sensitivity

No description available.

No description available.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / ALDH isoenzymes are known to impact the sensitivity of certain neoplastic cells toward cyclophosphamides and its analogs. Despite its bone marrow toxicity, cyclophos-phamide is still used to treat various recalcitrant forms of cancer. When activated, cyclo-phosphamide forms aldophosphamide that can spontaneously form the toxic phospho-ramide mustard, an alkylating agent unless detoxified by ALDH isozymes to the carbox-yphosphamide metabolite. Prior work has demonstrated that the ALDH1A1 and ALDH3A1 isoenzymes can convert aldophosphamide to carboxyphosphamide. This has also been verified by over expression and siRNA knockdown studies. Selective small molecule inhibitors for these ALDH isoenzymes are not currently available. We hypothe-sized that novel and selective small molecule inhibitors of ALDH3A1 would enhance cancer cells’ sensitivity toward cyclophosphamide. If successful, this approach can widen the therapeutic treatment window for cyclophosphamides; permitting lower effective dos-ing regimens with reduced toxicity. An esterase based absorbance assay was optimized in a high throughput setting and 101, 000 compounds were screened and two new selective inhibitors for ALDH3A1, which have IC50 values of 0.2 µM (CB7) and 16 µM (CB29) were discovered. These two compounds compete for aldehyde binding, which was vali-dated both by kinetic and crystallographic studies. Structure activity relationship dataset has helped us determine the basis of potency and selectivity of these compounds towards ALDH3A1 activity. Our data is further supported by mafosfamide (an analog of cyclo-phosphamide) chemosensitivity data, performed on lung adenocarcinoma (A549) and gli-oblastoma (SF767) cell lines. Overall, I have identified two compounds, which inhibit ALDH3A1’s dehydrogenase activity selectively and increases sensitization of ALDH3A1 positive cells to aldophosphamide and its analogs. This may have the potential in improving chemotherapeutic efficacy of cyclophosphamide as well as to help us understand better the role of ALDH3A1 in cells. Future work will focus on testing these compounds on other cancer cell lines that involve ALDH3A1 expression as a mode of chemoresistance.