Bakgrund och problem: Klimatförändringar har ökat allt mer med åren och är idag ett hot mot både individens hälsa och säkerhet. Tidigare forskning har studerat hur olika branscher, som bland annat material- och industribranschen, redovisar kring klimatrelaterade risker. Däremot har dessa studier inte fokuserat på hur endast en bransch redovisar kring klimatrelaterade risker. Dessutom finns det få studier som har fokuserat på hur redovisningen av klimatrelaterade risker påverkats av tvingande hållbarhetsrapportering.  Syftet: Syftet med denna studie är att undersöka hur tre av Sveriges storbanker redovisar kring risker som är till följd av klimatförändringar i års- och hållbarhetsrapporter och hur det har utvecklats för de tre årtalen 2016, 2019 och 2022. Studien bidrar till att få en ökad förståelse på hur tvingande hållbarhetsrapportering och införandet av ramverket Task Force on Climate - related Financial Disclosure påverkar redovisningen av klimatrelaterade risker.  Frågeställning: Hur redovisar banker kring de risker som är till följd av klimatförändringar i års- och hållbarhetsrapporter och har tvingande hållbarhetsrapportering påverkat redovisningen? Hur påverkas innehållet av års- och hållbarhetsrapporten vid införandet av TCFD? Metod: Inom denna studie har en metodkombination, kvalitativ och kvantitativ forskningsstrategi, tillämpats i form av en komparativ forskningsdesign. En innehållsanalys har genomförts. En kodningsmanual och ett kodningsschema har utformats med hjälp av kvalitativa frågor och kvantitativ data.  Resultat och slutsats: Studiens resultat kan visa på att det har skett en utveckling kring bankernas redovisning av klimatrisker för år 2016, 2019 och 2022.  Studien påvisar att bankerna har utvecklats från ett allmänt förhållningssätt till en mer specifik redovisning av klimatrisker, vilket tyder på en positiv påverkan från införandet av tvingande hållbarhetsrapportering. Vidare påvisar studien att införandet av ramverket TCFD har bidragit till en mer omfattande och detaljerad redovisning av klimatrisker, vilket i sin tur även tyder på en positiv påverkan. / Background and Problem: Climate changes have progressively intensified over the years and are presently a menace to both individual well-being and security. Prior research has explored how various sectors, including materials and industrial sectors, disclose climate-related risks. However, these inquiries have not centered on the singular disclosure of climate-related risks within a single sector. Furthermore, a limited number of studies have concentrated on how the reporting of climate-related risks has been influenced by mandatory sustainability reporting. Objective: The purpose of this study is to examine how three of Sweden's major banks disclose risks resulting from climate change in their annual and sustainability reports, and how it has evolved for the three years 2016, 2019, and 2022. The study contributes to enhancing the understanding of how mandatory sustainability reporting and the implementation of the Task Force on Climate-related Financial Disclosure framework influence the disclosure of climate-related risks. Research Question: How do banks disclose the risks resulting from climate change in annual and sustainability reports, and how has mandatory sustainability reporting affected the disclosure? How is the content of the annual and sustainability reports influenced by the implementation of TCFD (Task Force on Climate-related Financial Disclosure)? Method: This study employs a mixed-methods research strategy, combining qualitative and quantitative approaches, in the form of a comparative research design. To examine the banks' annual and sustainability reports for the years 2016, 2019, and 2022, a content analysis has been conducted. A coding manual and coding scheme have been developed using qualitative questions and quantitative data. Results and Conclusion: The results of the study can indicate that there has been a progression in the disclosure of climate risks by banks for the years 2016, 2019, and 2022. The study demonstrates that banks have evolved from a general approach to a more specific disclosure of climate risks, implying a favorable impact stemming from the implementation of mandatory sustainability reporting. Furthermore, the study highlights that the adoption of the TCFD framework has contributed to a more comprehensive and intricate disclosure of climate risks, which, in turn, also suggests a positive influence.

The European Commission states that climate change will increase over time, even with successful actions to stop greenhouse gas emissions, Sweden's work has been investigated in the Climate and vulnerability report and recent studies shows that Sweden's work with the issue is going slow. One way to present and communicate climate change is through visualization. The purposes of this paper is to examine the use of geographic data in 3D as a tool in the adaptation process and how it affects communication and understanding in the municipalities (the responsibility for climate adaptation lies at the municipal level) and between municipalities and agencies. The thesis is a qualitative case study, carried out through interviews with Botkyrka Municipality, Gothenburg City, County Administrative Board of Stockholm, Swedish Geotechnical Institute and The Interactive Institute. The views - about the use of 3D and climate adaptation with a focus on municipal operations expressed in the interviews - was analysed using content analysis. Thoughts emerged during the study about whether 3D is a generation issue with increased public demand in the future. The study also raised concerns about 3D representation being too realistic and that the interpretation needed to understand what the data means will be absent. Pictures of any kind is believed to facilitate understanding but the choice of 2D or 3D maps does not have a large impact on the speed of climate adaptation among Sweden's municipalities. Municipalities who worked with 3D can see that 3D has an effect on the their process and data is used more than before, which can be an advantage and provide better understanding of risk. Dialogue with the public is also believed to improve with the tools that come with 3D models and 3D could preferred if it would provide a faster point of contact between the municipality and the public. / Europeiska kommissionen fastslår att även med lyckade åtgärder för att stoppa utsläppen av växthusgaser kommer klimatförändringarna att öka under lång tid. Sveriges arbete har utretts i en klimat- och sårbarhetsutredning, men arbetet med åtgärderna går långsamt. En del av ansvaret för klimatanpassningen ligger på kommunalnivå i och med kommunernas planmonopol och självstyre. Ett sätt att presentera och kommunicera klimatförändringarna är via bilder. Denna uppsats undersöker om eller hur 3D påverkar kommunikation och förståelse för klimatanpassning på kommunalnivå. Och hur 3Dmodeller kan fungera som ett stöd och underlag för klimatanpassning. Uppsatsen är en kvalitativ fallstudie som genomförts genom intervjuer med Botkyrka kommun, Göteborgs stad, Länsstyrelsen i Stockholm, Statens Geotekniska Institut och The Interactive Institute. Informanterna har fått ge sin bild av användningen av 3D och klimatanpassning med fokus på kommunalverksamhet. Det materialet analyserades sedan i en innehållsanalys. Det framkom funderingar på om 3D är en generationsfråga där allmänheten i framtiden kommer kräva visualisering i 3D för att kunna förstå vad det är som visas. Det lyftes också farhågor om att 3D kan bli för verkligt och att den tolkning som behövs för att förstå vad datat betyder uteblir. Det är inte om kartorna är 2D eller 3D som gör att klimatanpassningen går långsamt bland Sveriges kommuner, men bilder av något slag tros underlätta förståelse. Kommunerna som jobbat med 3D ser ändrade arbetssätt där datat följer med i processen tydligare än tidigare vilket kan vara en fördel och ge bättre riskförståelse. Dialog med allmänheten tros också förbättras genom verktygen som kommer med 3D-modellerna om 3D dessutom kan ge en snabbare kontaktväg mellan kommun och allmänhet kan det vara en fördel.

Despite considerable uncertainties regarding the exact contribution of anthropogenic climate change to disaster risk, rising losses from extreme events have highlighted the need to comprehensively address climate-related risk. This requires linking climate adaptation to disaster risk management (DRM), leading to what has been broadly referred to as climate risk management (CRM). While this concept has received attention in debate, important gaps remain in terms of operationalizing it with applicable methods and tools for specific risks and decision-contexts. By developing and applying a methodological approach to CRM in the decision context of sovereign risk (flooding) in Austria we test the usefulness of CRM, and based on these insights, inform applications in other decision contexts. Our methodological approach builds on multiple lines of evidence and methods. These comprise of a broad stakeholder engagement process, empirical analysis of public budgets, and risk-focused economic modelling. We find that a CRM framework is able to inform instrumental as well as reflexive and participatory debate in practice. Due to the complex interaction of social-ecological systems with climate risks, and taking into account the likelihood of future contingent climate-related fiscal liabilities increasing substantially as a result of socioeconomic developments and climate change, we identify the need for advanced learning processes and iterative updates of CRM management plans. We suggest that strategies comprising a portfolio of policy measures to reduce and manage climate-related risks are particularly effective if they tailor individual instruments to the specific requirements of different risk layers. (authors' abstract)

It is increasingly recognized that banks might not be pricing adequately climate risks in the value of their loans contracts. This represents a barrier to scale up the green investments needed to align the economy to sustainability and to preserve financial stability. To overcome this barrier, climate-aligned policies, such as a revision of the microprudential banking framework (for example a Green Supporting Factor (GSF )), and the introduction of stable green fiscal policies (for example a Carbon Tax (CT )), have been advocated. However, understanding the conditions under which a GSF or a CT could represent an opportunity for scaling up green investments, while preventing trade-offs on risk for financial stability, is still insufficient. We contribute to fill this knowledge gap threefold. First, we analyse the risk transmission channels from climate-aligned policies, a GSF and a CT, to the credit market and the real economy via loans contracts. Second, we assess the reinforcing feedbacks leading to cascading macro-financial shocks. Third, we consider how banks could react to the policies, i.e., their climate sentiments. In this regard, we embed for the first- time banks climate sentiments, modelled as a non-linear adaptive forecasting function into a Stock-Flow Consistent model that represents agents and sectors of the real economy and the credit market as a network of interconnected balance sheets. Our results suggest that the GSF is not sufficient to effectively scale up green investments via a change in lending conditions to green firms. In contrast, the CT could shift the bank's loans and the green/brown firms' investments towards the green sector. Nevertheless, it could imply short-term negative transition effects on GDP growth and financial stability, according to how the policy is implemented. Finally, our results show that bank's anticipation of a climate-aligned policy, through stronger climate sentiments, could smooth the risk for financial stability and foster green investments. Thus, our results contribute to understand the conditions for the onset and the mitigation of climate-related financial risks and opportunities. / Series: Ecological Economic Papers

It is increasingly recognized that banks might not be pricing adequately climate risks in the value of their loans contracts. This represents a barrier to scale up the green investments needed to align the economy to sustainability and to preserve financial stability. To overcome this barrier, climate-aligned policies, such as a revision of the microprudential banking framework (for example a Green Supporting Factor (GSF )), and the introduction of stable green fiscal policies (for example a Carbon Tax (CT )), have been advocated. However, understanding the conditions under which a GSF or a CT could represent an opportunity for scaling up green investments, while preventing trade-offs on risk for financial stability, is still insufficient. We contribute to fill this knowledge gap threefold. First, we analyse the risk transmission channels from climate-aligned policies, a GSF and a CT, to the credit market and the real economy via loans contracts. Second, we assess the reinforcing feedbacks leading to cascading macro-financial shocks. Third, we consider how banks could react to the policies, i.e., their climate sentiments. In this regard, we embed for the first- time banks climate sentiments, modelled as a non-linear adaptive forecasting function into a Stock-Flow Consistent model that represents agents and sectors of the real economy and the credit market as a network of interconnected balance sheets. Our results suggest that the GSF is not sufficient to effectively scale up green investments via a change in lending conditions to green firms. In contrast, the CT could shift the bank's loans and the green/brown firms' investments towards the green sector. Nevertheless, it could imply short-term negative transition effects on GDP growth and financial stability, according to how the policy is implemented. Finally, our results show that bank's anticipation of a climate-aligned policy, through stronger climate sentiments, could smooth the risk for financial stability and foster green investments. Thus, our results contribute to understand the conditions for the onset and the mitigation of climate-related financial risks and opportunities. / Series: Ecological Economic Papers

Thesis (PhD. (Agricultural economics)) --University of Limpopo, 2013 / Declining rural livelihood and coping strategies in the Caprivi region have for some time been blamed on climate risk factors alone. Prominent climate risk factors are drought and floods. While the indignation of many speculators about the devastating effects of climate risk factors on annual harvests may be valid, the truth is that there are now new constraints on the livelihoods of rural households. Multi-stage cluster and stratified random sampling were used in identifying respondents. Data was collected by means of face-to-face interviews with a structured questionnaire that was applied on a sample of 253 respondents. The respondents resided in three constituencies, namely Kabbe, Katima Rural and Linyanti, which are classified as floodplains. With regards to the analytical framework, the thesis used descriptive statistics, factor analysis, a logistics regression model, as well as an unconstrained multivariate regression model. The objective of the thesis is to suggest mitigating strategic policy prescriptions that will enhance the livelihoods of rural communities in the Caprivi region. The results revealed that albeit agriculture is the main livelihood strategy, it is on a declining path in the context of livestock numbers (cattle, goats and chickens) and crop harvest (maize, millet and sorghum). Of the respondents, a substantial number (31%) of rural households are headed by people who are ≥ 56 years of age. Notwithstanding the damage caused to crop fields by other factors, the main causative factor to the poor harvest in 2007 was wild animals. The biannual harvesting approach has been abandoned for a single approach owing to climate risk factors and changes in the natural environment attributed to climate change and destruction of crop field by wild animals. The average annual rainfall at Katima Mulilo is 653 mm, but volatility in annual rainfall often results in drought or floods. Malaria, Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome are to blame for reduced availability of labour to maintain livelihood activities that sustain rural households. The results further show that five factor components make rural households eligible for receiving food aid. The first is the capacity to farm, the second is climate risk awareness, the third is household economic status, the fourth is past economic opportunities, and the last factor is household labour fitness. Salient to a rural farming household’s decision to farm are three variable, namely food cost, age of the head of the household and the value of food aid. Using income as a proxy to the de factor inadvertent climate risk occurrences and damage to crops by wild animals, pension in the hands of heads of rural households, the value of livestock owned by rural households and, the value of food aid provided to rural households proved to have a significant relationship with rural household income. In order to enhance rural livelihoods in the study area, the government and development partners should work towards establishing a repository for indigenous knowledge which rural communities have employed in the past. This knowledge should be improved on in order to use it in tackling related challenges in future. There is a need to invest more in agricultural infrastructure such as water-catchment facilities and irrigation infrastructure to assist communities to embark on irrigated vegetable farming in dry seasons; establish health facilities close to rural communities that are remote; address the lack of access to finance in the study area; and as an illustration of the lack of government projects in the study area, the green scheme should be rolled out in the area. The opening up of conservancies in areas where rural communities eke out their living from the agricultural livelihood strategy has caused unintended consequences for farming rural households. Thus the policy interface gap between the opening up of community conservancies and the agricultural policy affecting the agricultural livelihood strategy need to be addressed.

The Warsaw Loss and Damage Mechanism holds high appeal for complementing actions on climate change adaptation and mitigation, and for delivering needed support for tackling intolerable climate related-risks that will neither be addressed by mitigation nor by adaptation. Yet, negotiations under the UNFCCC are caught between demands for climate justice, understood as compensation, for increases in extreme and slow-onset event risk, and the reluctance of other parties to consider Loss and Damage outside of an adaptation framework. Working towards a jointly acceptable positionwe suggest an actionableway forward for the deliberations may be based on aligning comprehensive climate risk analytics with distributive and compensatory justice considerations. Our proposed framework involves in a shortmedium term, needs-based perspective support for climate risk management beyond countries ability to absorb risk. In a medium-longer term, liability-based perspective we particularly suggest to consider liabilities attributable to anthropogenic climate change and associated impacts. We develop the framework based on principles of need and liability, and identify the policy space for Loss and Damage as composed of curative and transformativemeasures. Transformativemeasures, such as managed retreat, have already received attention in discussions on comprehensive climate risk management. Curative action is less clearly defined, and more contested. Among others, support for a climate displacement facility could qualify here. For both sets of measures, risk financing (such as "climate insurance") emerges as an entry point for further policy action, as it holds potential for both risk management as well as compensation functions. To quantify the Loss and Damage space for specific countries, we suggest as one option to build on a risk layering approach that segments risk and risk interventions according to risk tolerance. An application to fiscal risks in Bangladesh and at the global scale provides an estimate of countries' financial support needs for dealing with intolerable layers of flood risk.With many aspects of Loss and Damage being of immaterial nature, we finally suggest that our broad risk and justice approach in principle can also see application to issues such as migration and preservation of cultural heritage.

The debate on "Loss and Damage" (L&D) has gained traction over the last few years. Supported by growing scientific evidence of anthropogenic climate change amplifying frequency, intensity and duration of climate-related hazards as well as observed increases in climate-related impacts and risks in many regions, the "Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage" was established in 2013 and further supported through the Paris Agreement in 2015. Despite advances, the debate currently is broad, diffuse and somewhat confusing, while concepts, meth ods and tools, as well as directions for policy remain vague and often contested. This book, a joint effort of the Loss and Damage Network - a partnership effort by scientists and practitioners from around the globe - provides evidence-based insight into the L&D discourse by highlighting state-of-the-art research conducted across multiple disciplines, by showcasing applications in practice and by providing insight into policy contexts and salient policy options. This introductory chapter summarises key findings of the twenty-two book chapters in terms of five propositions. These propositions, each building on relevant findings linked to forward-looking sugges tions for research, policy and practice, reflect the architecture of the book, whose sections proceed from setting the stage to critical issues, followed by a section on methods and tools, to chapters that provide geographic perspectives, and finally to a section that identifies potential policy options. The propositions comprise (1) Risk management can be an effective entry point for aligning perspectives and debates, if framed comprehensively, coupled with climate justice considerations and linked to established risk management and adaptation practice; (2) Attribution science is advancing rapidly and fundamental to informing actions to minimise, avert, and address losses and damages; (3) Climate change research, in addition to identifying physical/hard limits to adaptation, needs to more systematically examine soft limits to adaptation, for which we find some evidence across several geographies globally; (4) Climate risk insurance mechanisms can serve the prevention and cure aspects emphasised in the L&D debate but solidarity and accountability aspects need further attention, for which we find tentative indication in applications around the world; (5) Policy deliberations may need to overcome the perception that L&D constitutes a win-lose negotiation "game" by developing a more inclusive narrative that highlights collective ambition for tackling risks, mutual benefits and the role of Transformation.

The Department of Defense (DoD) has acknowledged climate change as a risk national security. Ongoing impacts include the loss of training and operational sites to climate hazards. Operationally, conflict and natural disasters around the world have been exacerbated by increasing heat, desertification, and flooding. Increasing average temperatures, the flagship issue of climate change, is a significant contributor to heat-illness in military personnel. This project explores the relationship between climate change and the U.S. military, ongoing efforts to evaluate and address the risk, and the overall impacts on training readiness. Measuring climate related vulnerability is a complex process. For the DoD to apply a common framework across a vast network of fundamentally different sites is an especially wicked problem. I recommend a tiered approach to iteratively narrow the focus and resources allocated to the most mission critical and at-risk sites. The process begins with a screening survey, continues to in-depth site-specific impact assessments, and ends with implementation of technical and institutional adaptations. Recent efforts by the DoD have not fully executed this process and resulting reports are resultingly insufficient. I identify a lack of consideration for heat stress on servicemembers. Using historical site data and projections, I determine that the risk of heat-illness and lost training time will increase. Leaders can use this data to plan risk mitigation efforts through changing training locations, timing, or control measures. The military must continue to adapt and overcome challenges of the coming century by using available scientific information to reduce risk during the planning process.

In the light of the increased frequency of natural hazards in Europe alongside the high impact a hazardous event has on real estate value, real estate owners need to manage and strengthen assets within their entire portfolio to increase resilience and minimize the vulnerability to future negative impact. Further, a research gap exists in how to incorporate climate variables with real estate specifics which makes it challenging for property managers and other stakeholders to interpret the climatic impact on a particular asset. To understand how these climatic impacts could implicate assets in the future, this research study aims to investigate the risk profiles for five commercial buildings in Milan, Italy, by performing a risk rating assessment. The study is collecting historical weather data for strong wind, heatwave, and heavy precipitation and performs future estimations for expected frequency and probability in Milan for the upcoming 20 years. The study also involves a practical part where five assets have been analyzed based on a developed vulnerability checklist to capture climatic variables with asset characteristics and the final risk score is calculated with a risk rating technique. Findings show that the expected frequency of each hazard during a 10-year period will by the end of 2041 in a worst- case scenario reach 95, 156, and 78 times (strong wind, heatwave, and heavy precipitation). This result indicates almost a doubled number of heatwaves in Milan compared to 1981. Results from the risk rating show that assets located in very exposed areas and with a high risk of negative impact to the foundation or fundamental installations tend to score high. This study provides a methodology to build upon for how to evaluate and calculate risk for an asset that could be used for estimating future climatic and financial impact to assets. This will help improve decision-making regarding climate change for property managers, real estate owners, and other stakeholders for parts of, or, the entire portfolio. / Som en följd av klimatförändringarna så ökar frekvensen av extremväder i Europa vilket har stora negativa konsekvenser på en fastighet och dess värde. Genom att som fastighetsägare kunna estimera och förutspå riskerna som extremväder medför, går det att öka byggnadernas motståndskraft mot extremväder och minska de negativa konsekvenserna. Vidare finns det idag bristfällig forskning om huruvida det är möjligt att kombinera klimatrelaterade variabler med fastighetsspecifika parametrar samt vilka negativa konsekvenser dessa medför för en specifik fastighet. Denna studie syftar till att öka kunskapen för hur man kan estimera framtida klimatpåverkan på specifika fastigheter. Forskningsstudien undersöker fem kommersiella byggnader i Milano, Italien, genom att utföra en riskbedömning av dessa. Studien inkluderar framtida uppskattningar och förväntad frekvens av extremväder i Milano för de kommande 20 åren. Dessa är baserade på historiska väderdata för tre olika extremväder; storm, värmebölja och kraftig nederbörd. Studien omfattar också en praktisk del där en utvecklad metod för fastigheters sårbarhet kopplat till klimatvariabler har applicerats på de fem kommersiella fastigheterna i Milano för att ta fram en fastighetsspecifik riskklassning. Resultaten visar på att den förväntade frekvensen av storm, värmebölja och kraftig nederbörd under en 10-årsperiod kommer att nå respektive 95-, 156-, och 78 gånger fram till 2041. Dessa resultat indikerar på en nästintill fördubbling av antalet värmeböljor i Milano jämfört med år 1981. Resultaten från risk-klassificeringen av visar på att fastigheter som ligger i väderutsatta och exponerade områden tenderar att få en högre riskpoäng. Grundläggningen samt nödvändiga installationer tenderade att vara mer känslig och medföra en större negativ påverkan på byggnaden. Vidare tillhandahåller denna studie en metod att bygga vidare på kring hur fastighetsägare kan utvärdera och beräkna risken för en fastighet. Detta kan bli en grundsten att använda för att uppskatta framtida ekonomisk påverkan av en fastighet eller ett helt bestånd. Studien syftar till att underlätta beslutsfattandet för fastighetsägare-, förvaltare och andra intressenter gällande klimatförändringars påverkan på fastigheter.