Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-17T15:01:29Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 WanessaPNS_DISSERT_PARCIAL.pdf: 561641 bytes, checksum: a77873b2962f7c4cd011f5b8eea3fa7f (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-07-20 / Coordena??o de Aperfei?oamento de Pessoal de N?vel Superior / Environmental sustainability has become one of the topics of greatest interest in industry, mainly due to effluent generation. Phenols are found in many industries effluents, these industries might be refineries, coal processing, pharmaceutical, plastics, paints and paper and pulp industries. Because phenolic compounds are toxic to humans and aquatic organisms, Federal Resolution CONAMA No. 430 of 13.05.2011 limits the maximum content of phenols, in 0.5 mg.L-1, for release in freshwater bodies. In the effluents treatment, the liquid-liquid extraction process is the most economical for the phenol recovery, because consumes little energy, but in most cases implements an organic solvent, and the use of it can cause some environmental problems due to the high toxicity of this compound. Because of this, exists a need for new methodologies, which aims to replace these solvents for biodegradable ones. Some literature studies demonstrate the feasibility of phenolic compounds removing from aqueous effluents, by biodegradable solvents. In this extraction kind called "Cloud Point Extraction" is used a nonionic surfactant as extracting agent of phenolic compounds. In order to optimize the phenol extraction process, this paper studies the mathematical modeling and optimization of extraction parameters and investigates the effect of the independent variables in the process. A 32 full factorial design has been done with operating temperature and surfactant concentration as independent variables and, parameters extraction: Volumetric fraction of coacervate phase, surfactant and residual concentration of phenol in dilute phase after separation phase and phenol extraction efficiency, as dependent variables. To achieve the objectives presented before, the work was carried out in five steps: (i) selection of some literature data, (ii) use of Box-Behnken model to find out mathematical models that describes the process of phenol extraction, (iii) Data analysis were performed using STATISTICA 7.0 and the analysis of variance was used to assess the model significance and prediction (iv) models optimization using the response surface method (v) Mathematical models validation using additional measures, from samples different from the ones used to construct the model. The results showed that the mathematical models found are able to calculate the effect of the surfactant concentration and the operating temperature in each extraction parameter studied, respecting the boundaries used. The models optimization allowed the achievement of consistent and applicable results in a simple and quick way leading to high efficiency in process operation. / A sustentabilidade ambiental tem se tornado um dos temas de maior interesse nas ind?strias, principalmente devido ? gera??o de efluentes. Os fen?is s?o encontrados em efluentes de v?rias ind?strias, como em refinarias, processamento de carv?o, ind?strias farmac?uticas, de pl?sticos, de tintas e de papel e celulose. Devido os compostos fen?licos serem compostos t?xicos ao ser humano e tamb?m a organismos aqu?ticos, a Resolu??o Federal CONAMA n? 430, de 13/5/2011 limita o teor m?ximo de fen?is, para lan?amento em corpos de ?gua doce, em 0,5 mg.L-1. No processo de tratamento desses efluentes, o processo de extra??o l?quido-l?quido ? o processo mais econ?mico para a recupera??o do fenol, pois consome pouca energia, mas, na maioria das vezes, implementa um solvente org?nico, sendo que o uso deste pode acarretar certos problemas ambientais, decorrentes da alta toxicidade que ele apresenta. Devido a isto, existe a necessidade de desenvolver novas metodologias, as quais visem a substitui??o destes solventes por compostos biodegrad?veis. Alguns trabalhos da literatura comprovam a viabilidade da remo??o de compostos fen?licos de efluentes aquosos, atrav?s de solvente biodegrad?vel. Nesse tipo de extra??o denominada Extra??o Ponto Nuvem ? utilizado um tensoativo n?o i?nico como agente extrator dos compostos fen?licos. Visando otimizar o processo de extra??o de fenol, o presente trabalho aborda a modelagem matem?tica e otimiza??o dos par?metros da extra??o e investiga o efeito das vari?veis independentes no processo. Foi empregando um delineamento fatorial 32 completo que teve como vari?veis independentes a temperatura de opera??o e a concentra??o de tensoativo e, como vari?veis dependentes, os par?metros de extra??o: Fra??o volum?trica da fase coacervato, concentra??o residual de tensoativo e de fenol na fase dilu?da ap?s a separa??o de fases e efici?ncia de extra??o do fenol. Para se alcan?ar os objetivos, o trabalho foi realizado em cinco etapas: (i) sele??o de alguns dados da literatura; (ii)aplica??o do modelo Box-Behnken para encontrar modelos matem?ticos que descrevem o processo de extra??o de fenol; (iii) C?lculo da ANOVA com aux?lio do programa STATISTICA 7.0 para avaliar a signific?ncia e predi??o dos modelos; (iv) Otimiza??o dos modelos atrav?s de superf?cies de respostas; (v) Valida??o dos modelos matem?ticos a partir da tomada de medidas adicionais, com amostras diferentes das utilizadas na obten??o dos modelos. Os resultados obtidos mostraram que os modelos matem?ticos encontrados s?o capazes de calcular o efeito da concentra??o do tensoativo e da temperatura de opera??o em cada par?metro de extra??o estudado, respeitando as faixas trabalhadas. A otimiza??o dos modelos obtidos permitiu de forma simples e r?pida resultados coerentes e aplic?veis na opera??o para se alcan?ar resultados elevados de efici?ncia

O uso de pesticidas levou ao aumento da produtividade e qualidade dos produtos agrícolas, porém o seu uso acarreta na intoxicação dos seres vivos pela ingestão gradativa de seus resíduos que contaminam o solo, a água e os alimentos. Dessa forma, há a necessidade do monitoramento constante de suas concentrações nos compartimentos ambientais. Para isto, busca-se o desenvolvimento de métodos de extração e enriquecimento de forma rápida, com baixo custo, gerando um baixo volume de resíduos, contribuindo com a química verde. Dentre estes métodos destacam-se a extração por banho de ultrassom e a extração por ponto nuvem. Após o procedimento de extração, o extrato obtido pode ser analisado por técnicas de Cromatografia a Líquido de Alta Eficiência (HPLC) e a Cromatografia por Injeção Sequencial (SIC), empregando fases estacionárias modernas, tais como as monolíticas e as partículas superficialmente porosas. O emprego de SIC com coluna monolítica (C18, 50 x 4,6 mm) e empacotada com partículas superficialmente porosas (C18, 30 x 4,6 mm, tamanho de partícula 2,7 µm) foi estudado para separação de simazina (SIM) e atrazina (ATR), e seus metabólitos, desetilatrazina (DEA), desisopropilatrazina (DIA) e hidroxiatrazina (HAT). A separação foi obtida por eluição passo-a-passo, com fases móveis compostas de acetonitrila (ACN) e tampão Acetato de Amônio/Ácido acético (NH4Ac/HAc) 2,5 mM pH 4,2. A separação na coluna monolítica foi realizada com duas fases móveis: MP1= 15:85 (v v-1) ACN:NH4Ac/HAc e MP2= 35:65 (v v-1) ACN:NH4Ac/HAc a uma vazão de 35 µL s-1. A separação na coluna com partículas superficialmente porosas foi efetivada com as fases móveis MP1= 13:87 (v v-1) ACN: NH4Ac/HAc e MP2= 35:65 (v v-1) ACN:NH4Ac/HAc à vazão de 8 µL s-1. A extração por banho de ultrassom em solo fortificado com os herbicidas (100 e 1000 µg kg-1) resultou em recuperações entre 42 e 160%. A separação de DEA, DIA, HAT, SIM e ATR empregando HPLC foi obtida por um gradiente linear de 13 a 35% para a coluna monolítica e de 10 a 35% ACN na coluna com partículas superficialmente porosas, sendo a fase aquosa constituída por tampão NH4Ac/HAc 2,5 mM pH 4,2. Em ambas as colunas a vazão foi de 1,5 mL min-1 e o tempo de análise 15 min. A extração por banho de ultrassom das amostras de solo com presença de ATR, fortificadas com concentrações de 250 a 1000 µg kg-1, proporcionou recuperações entre 40 e 86%. A presença de ATR foi confirmada por espectrometria de massas. Foram realizados estudos de fortificação com ATR e SIM em amostras de água empregando a extração por ponto nuvem com o surfactante Triton-X114. A separação empregando HPLC foi obtida por um gradiente linear de 13 a 90% de ACN para a coluna monolítica e de 10 a 90% de ACN para a coluna empacotada, sempre em tampão NH4Ac/HAc 2,5 mM pH 4,2. Em ambas as colunas a vazão foi de 1,5 mL min-1 e o tempo de análise 16 min. Fortificações entre 1 e 50 µg L-1 resultaram em recuperações entre 65 e 132%. / The use of pesticides has led to increased productivity and quality of agricultural products, but its use brings the intoxication of living beings by the gradual intake of their residues that contaminate soil, water and food. Thus, there is the need for constant monitoring of their concentrations in environmental compartments. For this, there is a quest for development of fast extraction and enrichment methods, at low cost, generating a low volume of waste, contributing to green chemistry. These methods include the extraction assisted by ultrasound bath and the cloud point extraction. After the extraction, the extract obtained can be analyzed by techniques such as High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) and Sequential Injection Chromatography (SIC) employing modern stationary phases, such as monolithic and superficially porous particles. The use of SIC with either monolithic column (C18, 50 x 4.6 mm) or column packed with superficially porous particles (C18, 30 x 4.6 mm, 2.7 µM particle size) was studied for separating simazine (SIM) and atrazine (ATR), and metabolites, deethylatrazine (DEA), deisopropylatrazine (DIA) and hydroxyatrazine (HAT). Separation was obtained by stepwise elution, with a mobile phase consisting of acetonitrile (ACN) and 2.5 mM ammonium acetate / acetic acid (NH4Ac / HAc) pH 4.2 buffer. The separation was performed with two mobile phases: MP1 = 15:85 (v v -1) ACN: NH4Ac / HAc and MP2 = 35:65 (v v-1) ACN: NH4Ac / HAc at a flow rate of 35 µL s-1. The separation in the column with superficially porous particles was carried out with the mobile phases MP1 = 13:87 (v v-1) ACN: NH4Ac / HAc and MP2 = 35:65 (v v-1) ACN: NH4Ac / HAc at 8 µL s-1. The ultrasound bath extraction from a soil fortified with herbicides (100 and 1000 µg kg-1) resulted in recoveries between 42 and 160 %. Separation of DEA, DIA, HAT SIM and ATR was obtained by HPLC employing a linear gradient from 13 to 35% for the monolithic column and from 10 to 35% ACN in the column packed with superficially porous particles, with the aqueous phases consisting of 2.5 mM NH4Ac / HAc buffer pH 4.2. In both columns the flow rate was 1.5 mL min-1 and the analysis time was15 min. Ultrasonic extraction from a soil sample containing ATR, fortified with concentrations from 250 to 1000 µg kg-1, provided recoveries between 40 and 86%. The presence of ATR was confirmed by mass spectrometry. Fortification studies with ATR and SIM were carried out in water samples employing cloud point extraction using Triton-X114 surfactant. The separation was accomplished by HPLC using a linear gradient from 13 to 90 % of ACN for the monolithic column and from 10 to 90 % ACN for the packed column, always in 2.5 mM NH4Ac / HAc pH 4.2 buffer. In both columns the flow rate was 1.5 mL min -1 and the analysis time 16 min. Fortifications between 1 and 50 µg L-1 resulted in recoveries between 65 and 132%.

Procedimentos analíticos limpos e com alta sensibilidade foram desenvolvidos para a determinação de espécies de interesse ambiental (carbaril, sulfato e cloro livre). Os procedimentos foram baseados no acoplamento de sistemas de análises em fluxo com microbombas solenoides à espectrofotometria com longo caminho óptico ou em procedimentos de extração em ponto nuvem, visando a concentração das espécies de interesse sem o emprego de solventes tóxicos. A determinação de carbaril em águas naturais foi baseada em uma dupla extração em ponto nuvem: uma etapa de clean-up para a remoção de substâncias orgânicas interferentes e outra de pré-concentração do indofenol formado na reação com a forma oxidada do p-aminofenol. Resposta linear foi observada entre 10 e 500 µg L-1, com absortividade molar aparente estimada em 4,6x105 L mol-1 cm-1. O limite de detecção foi estimado em 7 µg L-1 e coeficiente de variação em 3,4% (n = 8). Recuperações entre 91 e 99% foram estimadas para adições de carbaril em amostras de águas naturais. Uma cela simples e de baixo custo com 30 cm de caminho óptico foi construída para medidas espectrofotométricas. A cela apresenta características desejáveis como baixa atenuação do feixe de radiação e volume interno (75 µL) comparável a de uma cela convencional. O desempenho da cela foi avaliado na determinação de fosfato utilizando o método azul de molibdênio com resposta linear obtida entre 0,05 e 0,8 mg L-1 de fosfato (r = 0,999). O aumento na sensibilidade (30,4 vezes) em comparação com o obtido com uma cela de fluxo convencional de 1 cm está de acordo com o estimado pela lei de Lambert-Beer. A formação do indofenol foi também explorada para a determinação de carbaril no procedimento em fluxo com celas de 30 e 100 cm. Respostas lineares; limite de detecção e coeficiente de variação foram estimados entre 50 - 750 e 5 - 200 µg L-1; 4,0 e 1,7 µg L-1 e 2,3 e 0,7%, respectivamente, para as celas de 30 e 100 cm. O procedimento proposto foi seletivo para a determinação de carbaril, sem interferências de outros pesticidas carbamatos. O resíduo gerado foi tratado com persulfato de potássio e irradiação ultravioleta, com redução de 94% do carbono orgânico total, não sendo o resíduo degradado considerado tóxico, frente às bactérias Vibrio-fischeri. A determinação de sulfato foi baseada em medidas turbidimétricas com cela de fluxo de 1 cm, com resposta linear observada entre 20 - 200 mg L-1. Deriva de linha base não foi observada em função do fluxo pulsado gerado pelas microbombas solenoides. O limite de detecção e o coeficiente de variação (n = 20) foram estimados em 3 mg L-1 e 2,4%, respectivamente, com frequência de amostragem de 33 determinações por hora. Para aumentar a sensibilidade, uma cela de fluxo de 100 cm foi empregada e deriva de linha base foi evitada utilizando uma etapa de limpeza periódica com EDTA em meio alcalino. Resposta linear foi observada entre 7 - 16 mg L-1 com limite de detecção de 150 µg L-1 e coeficiente de variação de 3,0% (n = 20). A frequência de amostragem foi estimada em 25 determinações por hora. Resultados obtidos para amostras de águas naturais e de chuva foram concordantes a nível de confiança de 95% com o procedimento turbidimétrico em batelada. A determinação de cloro livre em águas naturais e de torneira foi baseada na reação com N,N-dietil-p-fenilenodiamina, com resposta linear entre 5 e 100 µg L-1 de hipoclorito e limite de detecção e coeficiente de variação estimados em 0,23 µg L-1 e 3,4%, respectivamente. A frequência de amostragem foi estimada em 58 determinações por hora. / Clean analytical procedures with high sensitivity for the determination of species of environmental interest (carbaryl, sulphate and chlorine) were developed. Flow systems with solenoid micropumps were coupled to long optical pathlength spectrophotometry or cloud point extraction procedures, aiming the concentration of species for determination without employing toxic solvents. Carbaryl determination in natural waters was based on a double cloud point extraction: a clean-up step for removal of interfering organic species and pre-concentration of the indophenol blue, formed in the reaction with the oxidized of p-aminophenol. Linear response was observed between 10 and 50 µg L-1, with apparent molar absortivity estimated as 4.6x105 L mol-1 cm-1. Detection limit was estimated as 7 mg L-1 and the coefficient of variation as 3.4% (n = 8). Recoveries between 91 and 99% were obtained for carbaryl spiked to natural waters. A simple and low cost flow cell with 30 cm optical path was constructed for spectrophotometric measurements. The cell shows desirable characteristics such as reduced attenuation of the radiation beam and internal volume (75 µL) comparable to conventional flow cells. The performance was evaluated by phosphate determination by the molibdenium blue method, with linear response between 0.05 and 0.8 mg L-1 of phosphate (r = 0.999). The increase in sensitivity (30.4 fold) in comparison to the obtained with a conventional 1 cm optical path flow cell agreed to theoretical value estimated by the Lambert-Beer law. The determination of carbaryl was also carried out in a flow system coupled to 30 and 100 cm optical path flow cells, also exploiting the formation of indophenol compound. Linear responses, detection limits and coefficients of variation were 50 - 750 and 5 - 200 µg L-1;4.0 and 1.7 µg L-1 and 2.3 and 0.7%, respectively, for 30 and 100 cm cells. The proposed procedure was selective for the determination of carbaryl, without interferences of other carbamate pesticides. The waste of the analytical procedure was treated with potassium persulphate and ultraviolet irradiation, with decrease of 94% of total organic carbon. The residue after treatment was not toxic for Vibrio-fischeri bacteria. Sulphate determination was based on turbidimetric measurements with 1-cm flow cell, with linear response between 20 and 200 mg L-1. Baseline drift was avoided in view of the pulsed flow related to the solenoid micropumps. The detection limit and the coefficient of variation were estimated as 3 mg L-11 and 2.4%, respectively, for a sampling rate of 33 determinations per hour. Aiming the increase in sensitivity, a 100 cm optical path flow cell was employed and baseline drift was avoided with a washing, step employing EDTA in alkaline medium. Linear response was observed between 7 - 16 mg L-1, with a detection limit of 150 µg L-1, coefficient of variation of 3.0% (n = 20) and sampling rate of 25 determinations per hour. Results obtained natural and rain for water samples agreed at 95% confidence level with the batch turbidimetric procedure. The determination of free chlorine in natural and tap waters was based on the reaction with N,N-diethyl-p-phenylenediamine, with linear response between 5 and 100 µg L-1, and detection limit and coefficient of variation estimated as 0.23 µg L-1 and 3.4%, respectively. Sampling rate was estimated as 58 determinations per hour.

A melamina é um composto tóxico ilegalmente empregado para adulterar o teor de proteínas em leite. A ingestão de pequenas quantidades de melamina pode causar complicações renais e até mesmo a morte de animais e humanos. Os procedimentos usuais para a determinação de proteínas são baseados na quantificação de nitrogênio total e não permitem detectar a adulteração. Neste trabalho, um procedimento rápido e limpo foi desenvolvido para a determinação de melamina como adulterante em leite. Triton X-114 foi utilizado para o clean-up da amostra e como fluoróforo. A determinação da melamina foi baseada na supressão da fluorescência do surfactante na fase pobre após a extração em ponto nuvem. Resposta linear foi observada entre 1,0 e 6,0 mg L- 1 de melamina, descrita pela equação de Stern-Volmer I°/I = 0,999 + 0,0165 CMEL (r = 0,999). O limite de detecção foi estimado em 0,8 mg L- 1 (nível de confiança de 95 %), o que permite a detecção de 320 \'mü\'g de melamina em 100 g de leite. Coeficientes de variação (n = 8) foram estimados em 0,4 e 1,4 % na ausência e na presença do analito, respectivamente. Recuperações entre 95 e 102% e os coeficientes angulares das curvas de calibração obtidas na presença e ausência de leite indicaram a ausência de efeitos da matriz. Os resultados para diferentes amostras de leite concordaram com os obtidos por cromatografia líquida de alto desempenho a um nível de confiança de 95% / Melamine is a toxic compound illegally used to adulterate the protein content in milk. The ingestion even of low amounts of melamine can lead to renal complications and death of animals and humans. Usual procedures for the determination of total nitrogen are not selective for the determination of non-protein nitrogen. In this work, a fast and environmentally friendly procedure was developed for the determination of melamine as a milk adulterant. Triton X-114 was used for sample clean-up and as a fluorophore. Determination of melamine was based on fluorescence quenching of surfactant in the poor phase after cloud point extraction in the presence of melamine. A linear response was observed from 1.0 and 6.0 mg L-1 melamine, described by the Stern-Volmer equation I°/I = 0.999 + 0.0165 CMEL(r = 0.999). The detection limit was estimated at 0.8 mg L-1 level (95% confidence level), which enables detection of as low as 320 \'mü\'g in 100 g of melamine of milk. The coefficients of variation (n = 8) were estimated at 0.4 % or 1.4 % in the absence or presence of the analyte, respectively. Recoveries within 95-102 % and similar slopes of calibration graphs obtained with and without milk indicated the absence of matrix effects. The results for different milk samples agreed with those obtained by high performance liquid chromatography at the 95% confidence level

La diminution en pétrole brut léger nécessite de convertir les fractions lourdes en produits valorisables (essences, gazoles, huiles, etc.). Dans ce contexte, l'hydrocraquage (HCK) fournit des produits de très haute qualité à partir de distillats sous vide (DSV) du pétrole brut. La qualité des coupes obtenues est caractérisée par des propriétés physico-chimiques qui sont soumises à des spécifications. L'optimisation du procédé nécessite des expérimentations longues et coûteuses. IFPEN a donc de plus en plus recours à des tests sur unité d'expérimentation haut débit (EHD). Ces derniers posent cependant un problème d'accessibilité aux coupes d'intérêt. Par ailleurs, pour comprendre et prédire l'impact des conditions opératoires sur la qualité des produits, des simulateurs sont développés. Certaines propriétés de produits sont cependant complexes et difficiles à modéliser voire mal comprises. Ce travail de thèse a porté sur l'amélioration de la compréhension moléculaire des propriétés produits pour une meilleure prédiction. Dans cette étude, nous nous sommes focalisés sur le point de trouble (PT) de la coupe gazole et l'indice de viscosité (VI) de l'huile obtenue lors de l'hydrocraquage de DSV. Deux techniques d'analyse moléculaire ont été utilisées : la chromatographie en phase gazeuse bidimensionnelle (GC×GC) qui permet de déterminer la composition par famille chimique des différentes coupes et la résonance magnétique nucléaire (RMN) du 13C qui fournit des informations sur la structure chimique des hydrocarbures présents dans ces mélanges. Nous présentons les résultats obtenus par une régression multivariée parcimonieuse (sparse Partial Least Squares) appliquée aux données GC×GC et 13C RMN. Il s'agit d'une variante de la PLS classique qui permet de réduire le nombre de facteurs tout en privilégiant ceux qui sont les plus corrélés à une propriété d'intérêt donnée. Globalement, cette étude a notamment permis de mieux comprendre l'impact des différents hydrocarbures (n-paraffines, isoparaffines, aromatiques,…) et de leur structure moléculaire (longueur de chaînes, degrés de branchements,…) sur le PT des gazoles et le VI des huiles. La bonne qualité des modèles obtenus par sparse PLS montre par ailleurs la possibilité d'accéder à la qualité des produits lors de l'utilisation d'EHD. Des modèles de prédiction par krigeage ont également été développés. Cette méthode d'interpolation permet de prédire une propriété en un point donné en effectuant une moyenne pondérée des observations au voisinage de ce point. Les modèles de krigeage sont des modèles locaux adaptés aux structures de données complexes. Ce sont des approches probabilistes qui permettent d'estimer les incertitudes de prédiction. Aussi bien dans le cas du PT de la coupe gazole que dans celui du VI de la coupe huile, les résultats montrent une amélioration des performances. Cette approche est tout à fait novatrice dans le domaine des produits pétroliers. Lors de l'utilisation d'unités EHD, elle permet d'accéder au VI des huiles de base plus aisément que via des données chromatographiques ou spectroscopiques, qui sont de plus non accessibles en raffinerie / The rapid decline in light crude oils requires to convert heavy petroleum fractions into more valuable products (naphtha, diesel, lubricants, etc.). In this context, hydrocracking process (HCK) consists on upgrading vaccum gas oil (VGO) into high quality products. The quality of petroleum products is based on some chemical and physical properties that should fulfill prerequisite specifications. The hydrocracking process optimization requires to set up time consuming and costly experiments for developing catalysts and setting operating conditions. High throughput experimentation (HTE) units are then increasingly used at IFPEN. However, these units do not enable to obtain end products. Otherwise, predictive models were developed in order to understand and predict the impact of operating conditions about products quality. However, some complex properties are very difficult to model and require a better understanding. This work is mainly concerned with the understanding of diesel cloud point (CP) and viscosity index (VI) of base oils. Two analytical techniques were used: the two-dimensional gas chromatography (GC×GC) that enables to identify hydrocarbons compounds in petroleum products and the 13C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy which provides structural characteristics of these compounds. A sparse multivariate regression (sparse Partial Least Squares) was performed using chromatographic and spectroscopic data. The sparse PLS is derived from classical PLS. It allows to reduce the number of factors by performing a variable selection. The selected factors are the most correlated to the property to model. Globally, this approach enabled to better understand how hydrocarbon compounds (nparaffins, isoparaffins, aromatics,…) and their molecular characteristics (carbon number, degree of branching,…) affect the diesel CP and the VI of base oil. Furthermore, the good performances of developed sparse PLS models show that it is possible to access to the products quality when using HTE units. Kriging models were also developed. Kriging is an interpolation method that predicts the value of a function at a given point by computing a weighted average of the known values of the function in the neighborhood of the point. Kriging models have local aspect which is well adapted to complex data. Its probabilistic approach enables to provide an estimate of predicted value uncertainty. Results show that kriging improves predictive performances for both diesel CP and VI of base oil. This approach is quite innovative in modelling of petroleum products properties. When using HTE units, it allows to estimate the VI of base oil more easily than from chromatographic or spectroscopic data which are not available for the refiners

Abstract Platinum group elements (PGEs) have a high commercial value and variety of applications in different fields of industry. One of the well-known applications is the use of palladium, platinum and rhodium in the catalytic converters of automobiles to reduce the amount of harmful gases emitted to the environment. Advanced analytical methods are needed to deal with issues related to development of new catalyst materials, recycling of PGEs from spent materials and for monitoring PGE emissions to the environment. In the first part of this study the emphasis was on the catalyst materials. Especially, reliable determination of ruthenium content in catalyst materials required further studies. Consequently, acid digestions in closed vessels using a microwave oven or high pressure asher were compared with a previously reported fusion method. Furthermore, the recovery of PGEs from spent materials is important due to many factors, for example, the high value of these metals, environmental aspects related to their production and possible availability issues in the future. Thus, utilization of microwave-assisted leaching and cloud point extraction (CPE) for the recovery of palladium, platinum, rhodium and ruthenium from catalyst materials was investigated. The second part of this study concentrated on the PGEs in environmental samples and the analytical challenges related to PGE determinations with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Due to the use of PGEs in catalytic converters of automobiles, they are emitted to the roadside environment. The use of Pleurozium schreberi, a terrestrial moss, for active biomonitoring of these emissions was evaluated. Advanced analytical methods were needed to perform interference-free determinations of palladium, platinum and rhodium in these samples. Two alternative approaches for interference elimination were studied. Firstly, the interfering elements were removed using CPE as a chemical separation method. Secondly, interferences were eliminated using ammonia as a reaction gas with the novel ICP-MS/MS (inductively coupled plasma tandem mass spectrometry) technique. / Tiivistelmä Platinaryhmän alkuaineita hyödynnetään monissa teknisissä sovelluksissa. Yksi tunnetuimmista on autoliikenteen haitallisten päästöjen vähentäminen käyttäen palladiumia, platinaa ja rodiumia autojen pakokaasukatalysaattoreissa. Luotettavia analyysimenetelmiä tarvitaan esimerkiksi kehitettäessä uusia katalyyttimateriaaleja, kierrätettäessä platinaryhmän alkuaineita käytetyistä materiaaleista tai seurattaessa platinaryhmän alkuaineiden määrää ympäristössä. Tämän tutkimuksen ensimmäinen osa liittyi katalyyttien ruteniumpitoisuuksien määrittämiseen ja platinaryhmän alkuaineiden kierrätykseen katalyyttimateriaaleista. Erityisesti näytteenhajotusvaihe aiheuttaa usein ongelmia ruteniummäärityksissä. Tämän vuoksi tutkimuksessa verrattiin keskenään mikroaaltotekniikalla tai korkeapainetuhkistimella suoritettuja happohajotuksia ja aiemmin raportoidulla sulatemenetelmällä suoritettuja hajotuksia. Mikroaaltoavusteista liuotusta sovellettiin yhdessä samepisteuuton kanssa tutkittaessa katalyyttimateriaalien palladiumin, platinan, rodiumin ja ruteniumin kierrätysmahdollisuuksia. Aihe on ajankohtainen, kun huomioidaan platinaryhmän alkuaineiden korkea hinta, niiden tuotantoon liittyvät ympäristöasiat sekä saatavuuteen liittyvät epävarmuustekijät. Tutkimuksen toisessa osassa keskityttiin ympäristönäytteisiin ja erityisesti niiden ICP-MS -analytiikan (induktiiviplasmamassaspektrometria) haasteisiin. Autojen katalysaattoreista lähtöisin olevia platinaryhmän alkuaineita päätyy ympäristöön lähinnä teiden varsille. Näitä päästöjä arvioitiin aktiivista biomonitorointia käyttäen. Spektraaliset häiriöt vaikeuttivat kerättyjen sammalnäytteiden (Pleurozium schreberi) palladium-, platina- ja rodiumpitoisuuksien määrityksiä. Tämän vuoksi mittauksissa esiintyvien häiriöiden poistossa hyödynnettiin kahta eri lähestymistapaa. Näistä ensimmäisessä häiritsevät alkuaineet poistettiin kemiallisen erotusmenetelmän, samepisteuuton, avulla. Toisessa tavassa häiriöt poistettiin uudella ICP-MS/MS -tekniikalla (induktiiviplasmatandemmassaspektrometria) käyttäen ammoniakkia reaktiokaasuna.

The simulation of natural phenomena such as clouds, smoke, fire and water is one of the most important research areas in computer graphics. Clouds are an essential component of any outdoor virtual environment, they add an important element of visual detail without which the environment would feel unrealistic. This paper describes an approach for setting up a cloud simulation. Clouds in our system are modeled using cellular automaton. To accelerate the simulation and its visualization, we implement both  entirely on programmable floating-point graphics hardware. The main part of the algorithm is implemented in a fragment shader and therefore takes full advantage of the highly parallel structure. The algorithm can generate result at real-time or near real-time frame rates. We also simulate the interaction of clouds with light, including self-shadowing.

Les copolymères poly (acétate de vinyle-co-alcool vinylique), désignés par PVA, sont des tensioactifs macromoléculaires obtenus par hydrolyse partielle de poly (acétate de vinyle)(PVAc). Si les propriétés tensioactives des PVA ont pu être corrélées aux caractéristiques moléculaires il n'en est par de même en ce qui concerne les associats du type nanogels présents dans les solutions aqueuses. L'objectif de cette thèse était de caractériser les nanogels par des techniques telles que la diffusion dynamique de la lumière, la chromatographie d'exclusion stérique et la viscosimétrie. 9 PVA, de degrés d'hydrolyse de 73 à 88 mole% et de degrés de polymérisation de 650 à 2500 ont été étudiés. Il est apparu que les nanogels présent dans les PVA de DH =73 mole% et formés par interactions hydrophobe-hydrophobe entre séquences acétate ont des tailles entre 20-40 nm, avec des fractions volumiques de l'ordre de 20-30%. La désagrégation des nanogels par formation de complexes avec des tensioactifs anioniques du type SDS et SDBS a ensuite été démontrée. En faisant appel à la technique de fractionnement par « point de trouble » il est apparu que les chaînes les plus riches en acétate et en particulier celles ayant des longueurs des séquences acétate importantes complexent plus de SDS.Des « copolymères modèles » du type copolymères diblocs PVAc-b-PVOH comportant une séquence hydrophobe PVAc et une hydrophile PVOH ont pu être préparés par polymérisation RAFT, suivie par une réaction click. Une étude préliminaire de la micellisation de tels copolymères a permis de montrer la très grande analogie entre micelles de copolymères à blocs PVAc-b-PVOH et les nanogels de PVA examinés précédemment. / Poly (vinyl acetate-co-vinyl alcohol) copolymers, designated by PVA, are macromolecular surfactants obtained by partial hydrolysis of poly (vinyl acetate) (PVAc). If the surfactant properties of PVA have been correlated with molecular characteristics it is not the same for the colloidal aggregates in aqueous solutions so-called nanogels. The objective of this thesis was to characterize the nanogels using techniques such as dynamic light scattering, size exclusion chromatography and viscometry.9 PVA with degrees of hydrolysis between 73 and 88 mole% and polymerization degrees of 650 to 2500 were studied. It appeared that the nanogels, formed by hydrophobic-hydrophobic interactions between acetate sequences, are the size in the range of 20 to 40 nm with volume fractions between 20 and 30%. The disaggregation of nanogels by complex formation with anionic surfactants such as SDS and SDBS was further demonstrated. By using the "cloud point" fractionation technique it appeared that SDS is complexed by the sequences with high acetate content and in particular those with significant lengths of acetate sequences.As a model system diblock copolymers PVAc-b-PVOH containing a PVAc hydrophobie sequence and a PVOH hydrophilic sequence were prepared by RAFT polymerization, followed by a click reaction. A preliminary micellization study of these copolymers showed a very strong analogy between PVAc-b-PVOH block copolymer micelles and PVA nanogels discussed above.

Les industries du raffinage et du transport doivent faire face à une conjoncture marquée par une demande croissante et importante de carburant gazole et à la fois par la Directive 2003/30/EC de l’Union Européenne imposant l'incorporation progressive de sources renouvelables dans les carburants (5,75 % en 2010 à 20 % en 2020, en terme de contenu énergétique). Dans ce contexte, les schémas de raffinage ont été orientés vers la valorisation de plus de coupes lourdes en bases pour la formulation des carburants gazoles et combustibles Fuel–Oil domestique, tandis que l’aspect réglementaire est satisfait en ayant recours à des bases alternatives de type Esters Méthyliques d’Huiles Végétales (EMHV). Cependant, les gazoles moteurs ainsi formulés sont d’avantage exposés aux problématiques de cristallisation en raison de l’accroissement de composés susceptibles de s’y solidifier lors de températures hivernales (principalement les n-alcanes et les Esters Méthyliques d’Acides Gras). Il est par conséquent important de se doter d’un outil d’optimisation de la formulation permettant de prédire la température d’apparition des premiers cristaux, soit leur point de trouble. Dans cette perspective, il a été nécessaire d’acquérir les données expérimentales de transition de phase liquide – solide des Esters Méthyliques d’Acides Gras composants les EMHV, mais également celles des fluides réels (gazoles fossiles, EMHV et leurs mélanges). Les données collectées ont par la suite été comparées aux prédictions résultantes de modèles thermodynamiques se proposant de décrire l’équilibre de phase liquide – solide des gazoles et des EMHV, afin de s’en inspirer pour établir une approche prédictive de calcul des températures de transition de phase des mélanges.En définitive, nous avons reliés les résultats de la modélisation thermodynamique et les mesures du point de trouble réalisées conformément aux normes pétrolières en vigueur en Europe (ASTM D5771et D7689), afin d’établir des corrélations aptes à la prédiction de cette propriété attestant de la tenue au froid des gazoles moteurs. / The concerns about greenhouse effect have encouraged the use of biodiesels to replace petroleum-derived diesel fuel. Indeed, the European Union has issued a Directive 2003/30/EC, which mandates the use of biofuels in a percentage ranging from 5.75% in 2010 to 20.00% in 2020 (calculated on the basis of energy content) for all transportation fuels marketed within the member states. First-generation biodiesels made from vegetable oils or animals fats are blended with petroleum diesel to fuel the engines. Besides, the refining schemes were modified to produce more heavy petroleum cuts in order to satisfy the growing demand of diesel fuel. However, the resulting diesel are more exposed to operability problems as the Fatty Acid Methyl Esters and the heavy normal paraffins may solidified in the tank and filters when the temperature drops down during the winter seasons. Thus the study of the solid-liquid phase equilibria of these blends may be useful to predict the temperature of apparition of the solidified material, known as the cloud point. In this work, we collected the melting data of the pure biodiesel components (Fatty Acid Methyl Esters) and we studied the phase change temperature of real diesel samples (petroleum diesel and biodiesel blends). Then, we have developed a thermodynamic model in order to compute the solid-liquid phase equilibria of all these kind of fluids involved in the diesel fuel formulation. Comparisons were made with the experimental phase change measurements and with the cloud point normalized measurement methods (ASTM D5771 et D7689). Finally, we have correlate the phase change temperature calculated by the thermodynamic model with the normalized cloud point, so as this important data could be obtain by a predictive tool.

Procedimentos analíticos espectrofotométricos foram desenvolvidos empregando etapas de separação e pré-concentração em sistemas de análises em fluxo com multi-impulsão ou lab-in-syringe, com aplicação a amostras de interesse agronômico (ferro em materiais vegetais e alimentos) e ambiental (cianeto dissociável em ácidos, ferro e antimônio em águas). A determinação de cianeto explorou a descoloração do complexo formado entre Cu(I) e ácido 2-2´-biquinolino-4,4´-dicarboxílico (BQA) pela presença de CN-, após a separação de HCN por difusão gasosa. Espectrofotometria com longo caminho óptico foi empregada para aumentar a sensibilidade, com resposta linear entre 5 e 200 g L-1, limite de detecção, coeficiente de variação (n = 10) e frequência de amostragem de 2,0 g L-1, 1,5% e 22 h-1, respectivamente. O procedimento consumiu apenas 48 ng de Cu(II), 5,0 g de ácido ascórbico e 0,9 g de BQA por determinação e gerou 2,6 mL de efluente. Tiocianato, nitrito e sulfito não afetaram a determinação de cianeto e peróxido de hidrogênio evitou a interferência de sulfeto até 200 g L-1. Os resultados para as amostras de águas naturais foram concordantes com o procedimento fluorimétrico em fluxo com 95% de confiança. Novas estratégias foram propostas para a extração em ponto nuvem (EPN) em fluxo: (i) a fase rica em surfactante foi retida diretamente na cela de fluxo, evitando a diluição; (ii) microbombas solenoide foram exploradas para melhorar a mistura e modular a vazão na retenção e remoção da fase rica, evitando a eluição com solvente orgânico e (iii) o calor liberado e os sais fornecidos por uma reação de neutralização em linha foram explorados para indução do ponto nuvem, sem dispositivo externo de aquecimento. Estas inovações foram demonstradas pela determinação espectrofotométrica de ferro baseada no complexo com 1-(2-tiazolilazo)-2-naftol (TAN). Resposta linear foi observada entre 10 e 200 g L-1, com limite de detecção, coeficiente de variação e frequência de amostragem de 5 g L-1, 2,3% (n = 7) e 26 h-1, respectivamente. O fator de enriquecimento foi de 8,9 com consumo apenas de 6 g de TAN e 390 g de Triton X-114 por determinação. Os resultados para amostras de águas foram concordantes com o procedimento de referência e os obtidos para digeridos de materiais de referência de alimentos concordaram com os valores certificados. A determinação espectrofotométrica de antimônio foi realizada explorando pela primeira vez a EPN em sistema lab-in-syringe. O complexo iodeto e antimônio forma um par iônico com H+, que pode ser extraído com Triton X-114. Planejamento fatorial demonstrou que as concentrações de ácido ascórbico, H2SO4 e Triton X-114, bem como as interações de segunda e de terceira ordem foram significativas (95% de confiança). Planejamento Box-Behnken foi aplicado para a identificação dos valores críticos. Robustez com 95% de confiança, resposta linear entre 5 e 50 g L-1, limite de detecção, coeficiente de variação (n = 5) e frequência de amostragem foram estimados em 1,8 g L-1, 1,6% e 16 h-1, respectivamente. Os resultados para amostras de águas naturais e medicamentos anti-leishmaniose foram concordantes com os obtidos por espectrometria de absorção atômica com geração de hidretos (HGFAAS) com 95% de confiança / Spectrophotometric analytical procedures were developed by exploiting separation and preconcentration steps in flow systems based on multi-pumping or lab-in-syringe approaches with application to agronomic (iron in plant materials and food) and environmental samples (acid dissociable cyanide, iron and antimony in waters). Cyanide determination exploited bleaching of the Cu(I)/2,2\'-biquinoline 4,4\'-dicarboxylic acid (BCA) complex by the analyte, after separation of HCN by gas diffusion. Long path length spectrophotometry was successfully exploited to increase sensitivity, thus achieving a linear response from 5 to 200 g L-1, with detection limit, coefficient of variation (n = 10) and sampling rate of 2 g L-1, 1.5% and 22 h-1, respectively. Each determination consumed 48 ng of Cu(II), 5 g of ascorbic acid and 0.9 g of BCA. As high as 100 mg L-1 thiocyanate, nitrite or sulfite did not affect cyanide determination and sample pretreatment with hydrogen peroxide avoided sulfide interference up to 200 g L-1. The procedure is environmentally friendly and presented one of the lowest detection limits associated to high sampling rate. The results for freshwater samples agreed with those obtained with the flow-based fluorimetric procedure at the 95% confidence level. Novel strategies were proposed for on-line cloud point extraction (CPE): (i) the surfactant-rich phase was retained directly into the flow cell to avoid dilution prior to detection; (ii) solenoid micro-pumps were explored to improve mixing and for flow modulation in the retention and removal of the surfactant-rich phase, thus avoiding the elution step with organic solvents and (iii) the heat released and the salts provided by an on-line neutralization reaction were exploited to induce cloud point without an external heating device. These approaches were demonstrated for the spectrophotometric determination of iron based on complex formation with 1-(2-thiazolylazo)-2-naphtol (TAN). A linear response was observed from 10 to 200 g L-1, with detection limit, coefficient of variation, and sampling rate of 5 g L-1, 2.3% (n = 7) and 26 h-1, respectively. The enrichment factor was 8.9 and the procedure consumed only 6 g of TAN and 390 g of Triton X-114 per determination. The results for freshwater samples agreed with the reference procedure and those obtained for certified reference materials of food agreed with the certified values. Spectrophotometric determination of antimony was performed for the first time exploiting CPE in the lab-in-syringe system. The antimony/iodide complex forms an ion-pair with H+, which can be extracted with Triton X-114. Factorial design showed that the concentrations of ascorbic acid, H2SO4 and Triton X-114, as well as the second and third order interactions were significant (95% confidence). The Box-Behnken design was applied to identify the critical values. The system is robust with 95% confidence and a linear response was observed from 5 to 50 g L-1, with detection limit, coefficient of variation (n = 5) and sampling rate of 1.8 g L-1, 1.6% and 16 h-1, respectively. The results for water samples and antileishmanial drugs agreed with those obtained by hydride generation atomic absorption spectrometry at the 95% confidence level