Since the competence provided in the CFSP and the AFSJ areas in certain situation can overlap, issues have arisen in the recent case law and literature concerning the choice of legal basis. The provisions of the two policy areas concern important international areas and the institutional balance, which is based on what legal basis is chosen, leads to a number of institutional consequences such as division of power between the Member states and the Union’s institutions. The idea behind this paper is to display an ample and just picture of a complicated situation in order to highlight the issues at hand that have arisen due to the complexness of the legal framework. If one of the policy areas are chosen as the correct legal basis, different rules in the treaty applies, which leads to different distribution of power since different institutions in EU play different roles depending on legal basis. The purpose of this work is therefore to analyse the external dimension of the AFSJ and the CFSP rules and examine how the correct legal basis can be determined by the legislator at the same time as the Member States and the EU’s ability to fulfil their objectives and goals is not undermined.

Arbetet är en litteraturstudie och är ett försök att ta reda på två underarter av tigers (Panthera tigris) populationsförändring och anledningen till detta på en tidsskala från 1970 till 2010. De valda underarterna för uppsatsen är sumatratigern och amurtigern. I samband med undersökningen av de två underarternas populationsförändring har fokus lagts på Sumatra och Amurområdet för att kunna få en överblick över de områden där tigrarna återfinns och med den överblicken lättare öppna för att diskutera hållbara bevarandemöjligheter i framtiden. Uppsatsen har i huvudsak diskuterats med stöd av tidigare studier, statistikuppgifter och rapporter i ämnet och därefter har det insamlade materialet analyserats och genomarbetats för att försöka nå fram till nya insikter inom tiger- och landskapsforskningen. Jämförande studier med den svenska vargen används som en utgångspunkt för vad som kan ske om tigern fortsätter att minska eller helt försvinner från sina områden. Trots brister i det statistiska underlaget finns tecken på att fragmenteringen och befolkningstillväxten är viktiga faktorer för sumatratigerns nedgång. Amurtigern visade sig vara mer tålig för både fragmentering och den ökande befolkning i Amurområdet tvärtemot vad tidigare forskning visat, men då båda tigrarnas utbredningsområde har analyserats på liknande sätt trots stora skillnader i förhållande, miljö och storlek så kan detta spela en stor roll i mina resultat jämte tidigare forsknings resultat. Klart är dock att människors allmänna attityd mot rovdjur i deras närområde, så kallade human-wildlife conflicts, komplicerar bevarandefrågan för tigern då skador orsakade av rovdjuren inte ses på med blida ögon och kan vara dyrt att kompensera för. / The study is a literature review and seek to find out two subspecies of tiger´s (Panthera tigris) population change and the reasons surrounding this on a time scale from 1970 to 2010. It also includes finding out the landscape and ecological consequences related to this, in order to discuss the sustainable conservation opportunities in the future. The two chosen subspecies for the study is the sumatran tiger and the amurtiger. The method has been mainly supported by previous studies, statistics and reports on the subject, but has allow themselves to be analysed and discussed in search for new fatc that can bring more light over the tigers popoulationchanges and the reserach of the tigerlandscape. Comparative studies with other predators, our Swedish wolf out and foray into the landscape, however, brings us a good picture of what could happen if the tiger continues to decrease or completely disappear from their landscape. Despite declining statistics, there were clear signs that fragmentation and human population growth are important factors to discuss the tiger's decline. The sumatran tiger was shown to be dangerly threatened by deforestation and human population growth in Sumatra, while the amurtiger seemed to be more resistent despite earlier researches has shown. An explanation for this might be the fact that the two subspecies range has been analyzed the same way despite large differences in environment and sieze and this can play a big role in my results that differes from earlier reserach results. It is clear, however, that humans general attitude toward predatos in their local area, so called human-wildlife conflicts, complicates the issue of conservation of the tiger when damage caused by the predators can be fatal and not to easy or affordable to compensate.

Activities in and connected to cities are responsible for around 70 % of the global CO2 emissions and as the urbanization to cities are likely to increase in forthcoming future, actions to handle this situation are of vital importance. Through the integration of sustainable development in cities’ urban development, this have large potential to improve social, economic and ecological aspects in the cities. Besides being the places where most of the global consumption and emissions come from, it’s in these specific places where essential effects can be reached. There’re, however, difficulties with this, due to that it requires participation and responsibility from all stakeholders in the city. Different cities have different capabilities and conditions to work with sustainable development, which is why this study examine the two cities of Linköping and Norrköping. The study is based on interviews with actors that are closely connected to the urban development in the both cities. The results shows that the cities have different historical background and city structure, causing them to work a bit differently. Furthermore, the result also indicate that the largest challenges are how to handle the transportation issue, conflicts of interests as well as cooperation between different stakeholders.

Les conflits de territoire qu‟ils soient des conflits d’aménagement, des conflits environnementaux, ou des conflits d’usage, sont en augmentation constante ces dernières années, retardant ou annulant souvent de multiples projets. Plusieurs travaux ont mis en évidence les rapports complexes entre conflit et territoire, mais peu d‟entre eux ont tenté de remettre les différents acteurs à égalité dans la prise en compte de leur parole territoriale.Cette thèse cherche à comprendre la place réelle prise par le territoire dans les discours d’acteurs à l’occasion de conflits de territoire. Trois études de cas ont été mobilisées pour tenter d‟éclairer cet aspect. La première étude porte sur le conflit autour du projet d’aéroport international de Notre Dame des Landes, la seconde compare les conflits liés à l’implantation de centres d’enfouissement de déchets en Bretagne et la troisième analyse le conflit d’usage de l’hypercentre rennais à l‟occasion des soirées du jeudi.La question des échelles de mobilisation et des arguments mobilisés a été étudiée sous l‟angle de l’analyse des représentations des acteurs. Nous avons interprété la parole des différents acteurs, ceux que l‟on peut qualifier de « profanes » et les « experts » ou décideurs en les positionnant sur le même objet de départ : le territoire du projet. Nous avons aussi cherché ce qui pourrait permettre de nouvelles médiations entre ces deux savoirs par une compréhension des convergences et divergences dans les différents discours.Pour ce faire, nous avons principalement mobilisé un outil appelé « carte mentale ». Nous avons au préalable défini précisément les contours de l’objet, puis bâti une méthodologie d’exploitation qui n‟existait pas jusqu‟à présent. L‟étude des représentations par l‟outil mobilisé a permis indubitablement de mieux comprendre la place réelle des arguments territoriaux dans le discours des opposants et nous avons réussi à reconfigurer de nouveaux systèmes d’acteurs, ainsi que des modèles territoriaux complexes.A partir de ces modèles nous avons alors cherché à bâtir une synthèse globale du conflit que nous avons appelée la « belliforme », qui pourrait être le point de départ de nouveaux processus de concertation territoriale en amont mais aussi en aval de la décision territoriale. Plus globalement, nous avons posé la question du rôle clé que pourrait jouer une cartographie davantage centrée sur les acteurs que sur les projets dans la compréhension des interactions dont les territoires et les conflits se nourrissent mutuellement / Territorial conflicts, whether they involve environmental, land use, planning or urban development issues, are on the rise and often lead to the delay, or even the abandon, of diverse projects. While previous studies have emphasized the complex relationships that exist between conflicts and territories, few have successfully set the perspectives of the different actors on an equal footing.This thesis seeks to understand the real place occupied by the territory in the different perspectives of the various actors involved in territorial conflicts. Three case studies in particular have been used to clarify this aspect. The first study concerns the Notre-Dame-des-Landes International Airport conflict. The second is a comparison of land-fill site conflicts and the third focuses on the analysis of the conflict surrounding „Thursday night parties” in Rennes City Centre.The different scales of mobilisation and the different arguments advanced in these case studies were examined from the angle of the analysis of the different representations made by the various actors. We interpreted the positions of the different actors, laypersons, experts, and decision-makers, on the same level: that of the project territory. We also investigated how new mediations between different players could be put into place to allow a better understanding of the convergences and divergences of the positions held by different actors.To do this, we mainly used a “mental mapping” tool, which involved precisely outlining the objective of our study before developing a new methodology for resolving conflicts. The study of the different representations with this tool has undoubtedly allowed a better understanding of the different assertions made by opposing positions in territorial conflicts. As such, we have established a new design for the system of different actors and of the models of territorial complexes.From these new models, we established a global synthesis of conflict which we have termed “belliforme”, and which serves as a starting point for new processes of territorial cooperation, both prior to and following, the decision-making process. Furthermore, we question the key role that could be played by a cartography centred around the actors, rather than around the projects, in the understanding of the interplay between conflicts and territories.

Significance of family mediation in the resolution of legal conflicts in a family The purpose of my thesis is to analyse the issue of family mediation. Family mediation which is a form of Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) could be defined as a structured process in which family members agree to appoint a neutral third party (the mediator) who assists them to find a mutually satisfactory solution to their problem based on their own decisions. The mediator must be impartial, their role is to encourage communication between the parties but has no authority to make any substantial suggestions or decisions with regard to the parties' issues. The mediation process is voluntary and confidential. One of the reasons why I chose this topic is my belief that family mediation can be in many cases a more suitable way to solve family conflicts than litigation. In many foreign countries (especially western European countries, the USA and Canada) mediation has a long history and is used frequently to solve conflicts that relate to separation, divorce, custody, financial questions in family etc. In the Czech Republic, however, family mediation has not been developed very well and I find this situation unfavorable. Recently there has been lots of discussion concerning the draft law on mediation. It could bring...

This article reviews and contrasts two approaches that water security researchers employ to advance understanding of the complexity of water-society policy challenges. A prevailing reductionist approach seeks to represent uncertainty through calculable risk, links national GDP tightly to hydro-climatological causes, and underplays diversity and politics in society. When adopted uncritically, this approach limits policy-makers to interventions that may reproduce inequalities, and that are too rigid to deal with future changes in society and climate. A second, more integrative, approach is found to address a range of uncertainties, explicitly recognise diversity in society and the environment, incorporate water resources that are less-easily controlled, and consider adaptive approaches to move beyond conventional supply-side prescriptions. The resultant policy recommendations are diverse, inclusive, and more likely to reach the marginalised in society, though they often encounter policy-uptake obstacles. The article concludes by defining a route towards more effective water security research and policy, which stresses analysis that matches the state of knowledge possessed, an expanded research agenda, and explicitly addresses inequities.

The principle of territoriality is a truism in intellectual property (IP) law. A premise underlying the principle is the right of each state to determine the extent to which IP rights exist and are protected within its own territory to fulfil its own economic, social and cultural policy goals. This is done by giving a right to prevent others from doing within the protected territory any of the acts that are exclusively reserved to the right holder under the IP statute that granted or protects the IP right. The principle of territoriality informs that IP rights granted or protected by a state are independent from those granted or protected by other states, and that the rights conferred under each state’s IP law are limited to the territory of that state. As the principle of territoriality neatly allocated jurisdiction among states on a territorial basis, it purportedly obviated the need for private international law. Each state exercised jurisdiction over the infringement of its own rights and applied its own domestic IP law, which served the interests of the states and of the parties. With the increase in the protection and exploitation of IP rights across national borders, infringements do not remain within hermetically sealed national territories. Acts taken in one state can have effects in other states and impair the policies that the rights were designed to fulfil. This raises questions concerning the territorial scope of application of the domestic IP law, that is, whether it is interpreted with respect to a domestic tangible act, effects on a domestic policy goal or both. In addition, the transborder exploitation of IP rights raises questions of private international law with respect to whether states exercise jurisdiction and apply national law to disputes concerning infringements of their domestic rights or whether states exercise jurisdiction and apply national law to disputes arising from acts committed in their territories (or both). These determinations may depend on different factors such as the different interests taken into consideration (e.g. state or party interests), the different legal traditions upon which the legal systems are based and the characteristics and functions of the IP rights themselves. This dissertation compares the interpretation and operation of the principle of territoriality of IP law in the private law resolution of transborder IP infringement disputes in the legal systems of the European Union and the United States, two distinctly different legal systems that have significant trade and investment relations with each other. The comparison shows that while the systems are functionally similar, the principle of territoriality is interpreted and operates somewhat differently in the two legal systems.

ABSTRACT This research investigates the role played by external actors in contemporary African civil conflicts with specific attention to South Africa’s leading role in addressing Burundi’s intractable civil conflict. The inquiry was guided by looking at SA’s efforts in managing Burundi’s peace process in partnership with key external parties such as the Regional Initiative for peace in Burundi, AU and the UN; and by examining the level of success of SA’s involvement in the peace process and limitations encountered in pursuing diplomatic/political and military efforts aimed at resolving the civil conflict. The theories of conflict resolution and protracted social change, and scholarly and policy literature on intervention were drawn upon to frame the research. The struggle for political power explains the key root cause to Burundi’s civil conflict; rival politicians manipulated ethnicity and the past injustices, which are rooted in colonial policies of divide and rule, as tools in an attempt to accede to power and thereby, gain economic advantage at the expense of others. SA diplomatic efforts played an important role in addressing this by advocating for political and military power sharing. In order to reconcile and manage differences in approaches that were advocated to deal with the Burundi civil conflict, SA mobilized for support in Burundi’s neighbouring countries so as to back a peaceful solution to address the conflict. Further, in an effort to bolster its troops and, therefore, expand operations designed to promote peace in Burundi, SA had to merge into the African Mission in Burundi, and cooperate with the UN in order for the latter to render impetus to the peace process by, providing necessary resources and political support for the Burundi peace mission, and subsequently to assume the mission by taking over from the African mission. Although SA’s troop deployment provided protection for the former Hutu exile politicians and thereby, encouraged them to participate in negotiations and the transitional government, which participation increased chances of success in the peace process, however, SA did not do much in peacekeeping under the UN due to inadequate military equipments; civilians continued to be killed in the presence of SA troops, even though, under the UN their role extended to include civilian protection. To the extent that SA’s intensive diplomatic efforts resulted in the Arusha Peace and Reconciliation Agreement for Burundi, however, a number of Burundian parties did not participate in the signing of the agreement and the rebel movements were excluded from the process. Thus, the Arusha peace process failed to attain consensus in addressing Burundi’s contentious issues. Although the UN peacekeepers in Burundi, of which SA was part, had a Chapter VII mandate to enforce the peace of which civilian protection was part of their mission, they did not exercise it. Intervention was constrained by the Burundian government; they argued that the ultimate authority in maintaining security throughout the country rested on them. Moreover, it is difficult if not impossible to observe UN traditional peacekeeping norms while at the same time having to implement the responsibility to protect, which has been occasioned by the post-Cold War world, in which human rights have gained wider recognition, and international norms of sovereignty and nonintervention redefined. Thus, strict observance of the UN traditional peacekeeping norms, inhibit intervention aimed to protect civilians facing catastrophic circumstances or under imminent threat.

The Role of Planning in mediating conflicts involving tourism development and land access by local communities in the Matutuine district, south of Mozambique, is the theme of this research report. The aim of the study was to analyse and understand how tourism development in a particular context, the Matutuine district, has impacted on the life of the local communities. Access to land and to the other natural resources as well as associated socio-economic aspects was explored. Present and proposed planning approaches and their role in minimising land use conflicts were also investigated. In order to address the research problem, the following research question has been proposed: Are the problems arising from the conflict of interest that involve tourism development and land access by local communities responsible for land degradation in the district? The following subsidiary questions have been proposed to assist in answering the main question: What type of land use conflicts exist in the district of Matutuine and how has tourism affected the local communities? Has tourism been beneficial to local communities in terms of land access, participation and tourism spin-offs? To what extent do land use conflicts influence land degradation and how does planning respond to this? After developing the theoretical and conceptual framework of the study, a combination of methods such as documentary analysis, sampling and interviews, participant observation and spatial observation was used to collect primary and secondary data under analysis. Data collection mainly focused on the main land use types and land use conflicts, participation of local communities in tourism development, socio-economic benefits that accrue from tourism development, land degradation and planning and management of tourism, land and the other natural resources. The resulting data and information were organised and analysed through out the chapters in order to answer the research questions. The research revealed that tourism development has not been beneficial to the local communities. Institutional fragmentation and overlapping of mandates, a lack of common understanding and enforcement of legislation, corruption, and a lack of capacity building and legal status of the local communities are the main reasons for a dysfunctional tourism system in the study area. In order to contribute for the management and resolution of land use conflicts in the study area, it is recommended that planning and planners should introduce new planning processes such as collaborative and communicative approaches, facilitation and mediation techniques as well adaptive processes to address power relations among stakeholders.

Ph. D., Faculty of Arts, University of the Witwatersrand, 1985