The anthropogenic use of natural resources has become a major cause of biodiversity loss and habitat degradation throughout the world. Deforestation - the conversion of forests to alternative land covers - has led to a decrease in local biodiversity directly through a decrease in habitat, and indirectly through habitat fragmentation. Likewise, defaunation – the loss of animals both directly through hunting and indirectly through deforestation – has led to the empty forest syndrome and subsequent deterioration of forest ecosystems. In many cases, areas where anthropogenic use of natural resources is high overlap with areas of high biodiversity value. Therefore, the present series of studies aims to better understand the impacts that different types of natural resources use and habitat degradation have on biodiversity. This dissertation details the results of five studies, which aimed to: 1) examine the effects of habitat degradation on plant-frugivore networks; 2), understand the live capture and extent of ownership of lemurs in Madagascar; 3) understand the micro- and macro-level drivers of wild meat consumption in Madagascar; 4) describe the capture, movement, and trade of wild meat in Madagascar; and 5) the impacts of habitat changes on the diets and vertical stratification of frugivorous bats. For the first study, our objectives were to understand the effects of habitat degradation on (1) community structure, (2) network structure, and (3) seed dispersal services. We focused on fruit-bearing trees and frugivores (two lemur and five bird species) across a three-point gradient of habitat degradation in a tropical dry forest in Madagascar. Our objectives were to understand the effects of habitat degradation on (1) community structure, (2) network structure, and (3) seed dispersal services. We focused on fruit-bearing trees and frugivores (two lemur and five bird species) across a three-point gradient of habitat degradation in a tropical dry forest in Madagascar. Data on fruit consumption by frugivores were collected over 592 hours of observations at 13 fruiting tree species. We found that as habitat became more degraded: (1) the community structure of both frugivores and fruiting tree communities changed; (2) the mutualistic network structure became less complex and less connected; (3) the interaction strengths of pair-wise interactions changed and the asymmetries of these interactions shifted; and (4) seed dispersal decreased by 91% in the secondary forest, compared to the primary forest. In addition, we show that frugivores: (1) sometimes stopped eating fruit in the degraded forest, even when they had consumed it in other forests; and (2) appeared to avoid some fruiting tree species while showing preference for others. The mutualistic network studied in this paper appeared sensitive to anthropogenic disturbance and a novel measure of effectiveness helped quantify these changes. For the second study, our objectives were to provide the first quantitative estimates of the prevalence, spatial extent, correlates and timing of lemur ownership, procurement methods, within-country movements, and numbers and duration of ownership. Using semi-structured interviews of 1,093 households and 61 transporters, across 17 study sites, we found that lemur ownership was widespread and affected a variety of taxa. We estimate that 28,253 lemurs have been affected since 2010. Most lemurs were caught by owners and kept for either short (≤1 week) or long (≥3 years) periods. The live capture of lemurs in Madagascar is not highly organized but may threaten several endangered species. For the third study, we investigated the role of wild meat in food security in Madagascar, a country where wild meat consumption is poorly understood in urban areas and at regional scales. Using semi-structured interviews (n = 1339 heads-of-households, 21 towns), we aimed to: 1) quantify the amount and purpose of; 2) understand the drivers behind; and, 3) examine recent changes in wild meat consumption in Madagascar. Few respondents preferred wild meat (8 ± 3%) but most had eaten it at least once (78 ± 7%), and consumption occurred across ethnic groups, in urban and rural settings. More food insecure areas reported higher rates of recent consumption of wild meat. However, consumption was best explained by individual preferences and taboos. Few respondents (<1 ± <1%) had increased rates of consumption during their lifetimes, and wild meat prices showed no change from 2005-2013. Most consumption involved wild pigs and small-bodied animals, though these animal groups and lemurs were consumed less in recent years. Given these data, wild meat is unlikely to enhance food security for most Malagasy people in urban and well-connected rural areas. For the fourth study, and to improve understanding of the wild meat trade in Madagascar, our objectives were to: (1) quantify the volume of consumption, transport, and sale for different animal groups, compared to domestic meat; (2) describe the methods of capture and hunting for different animal groups; (3) analyze the patterns of movement of wild meat from the capture location to the final consumer, compared to domestic meat; and (4) examine how the prices of wild meat change depending on the venue through which the consumer purchases it. Data was collected in May-August 2013 using semi-structured interviews of consumers (n = 1343 households, 21 towns), meatsellers (n = 520 restaurants, open-air markets stalls, and supermarkets, 9 towns), and drivers of inter-city transit vehicles (n = 61, 5 towns). We found that: (1) a wide range of hunting methods were used, though their prevalence of use differed by animal group; (2) wild meat traveled distances of up to 166 km to reach consumers, though some animal groups were hunted locally (<10 km) in rural areas; (3) most wild meat was procured from free sources (hunting and receiving meat as a gift), though urban respondents who consumed bats and wild pigs were more likely to purchase those meats; and (4) wild meat was consumed at lower rates than domestic meat, though urban respondents consumed twice as much wild meat as rural respondents. We conclude that urban and rural respondents differ in how they interact with the wild meat commodity chain. We also believe that the consumption and trade of wild meat in Madagascar is likely more formalized that previously thought. Finally, for our fifth study, we used stable isotope analysis to examine how foraging by three fruit bat species in Madagascar, Pteropus rufus, Eidolon dupreanum, and Rousettus madagascariensis, are impacted by habitat change across a large spatial scale. Our results indicated that the three species had broadly overlapping diets. Differences in diet were nonetheless detectable and consistent between P. rufus and E. dupreanum, and these diets shifted when they co-occurred, suggesting resource partitioning across habitats and vertical strata within the canopy to avoid competition. Changes in diet were also correlated with a decrease in forest cover, though at a larger spatial scale in P. rufus than in E. dupreanum. These results suggest fruit bat species exhibit differing foraging strategies in response to habitat change. They also highlight the key threats that fruit bats face from habitat change, and clarify the spatial scales at which conservation efforts should be implemented to mitigate threats for these bat species in Madagascar. / Biology

Lake Victoria is known for its cichlid fish species flock of 500 or more, which have been drastically decreased due to mass extinction. The lake's fisheries transformed from artisanal to industrial, with exotic species displacing the indigenous flock, changes linked to local and global anthropogenic consequences. Cage aquaculture has been established in the lake as a result of dwindling catch fisheries, a growing human population, and increased demand for fish. This dissertation investigates: 1) the distributional ecology of fishes along a limnological gradient in Lake Victoria, Kenya; and 2) the effects of cage aquaculture in the lake on limnology and fish communities, as well as the scientific and social correlates of proper implementation and growth. In April/May and July/August 2017, fish distribution patterns in the lake were surveyed using gillnets at eleven littoral sites and trawls at thirty lake-wide locations. From November 2018 to July 2019, four sites arrayed on an inshore-offshore gradient were sampled using paired cages and control stations. Using established protocols, water quality variables were sampled and analyzed. The status of variables and their associations were investigated using descriptive and exploratory statistics in the R statistical programming language. There was a limnological gradient, with nutrient concentrations, chlorophyll-a, and turbidity decreasing dramatically from the inner gulf to the outer waters. In the gulf's eutrophic waters, indigenous catfishes and cyprinids were abundant, while Nile perch and haplochromines were abundant in the open less eutrophic waters. Along the inner gulf-open lake gradient, Nile perch population structure, size at 50% maturity, and feeding patterns differed. There were no significant variations in environmental metrics between the paired cage farms and the controls, implying that inputs like sewage and agricultural runoff contribute more to eutrophication and the state of the gulf. Near cages, the average monthly total fish biomass was higher than in control areas. In the inner gulf, non-haplochromine fishes were many and diversified, with some species being particularly prevalent near cages. Based on biophysical constraints and overlap between cage aquaculture, fisheries, and biodiversity conservation in the lake, it was projected that cages could yield 250,000 metric tons of Nile tilapia per year. The findings indicate that, when correctly managed, cage aquaculture in Lake Victoria has a positive impact on both biodiversity and economic prosperity in the region.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Biology / Keith B. Gido / Many native freshwater animals are imperiled as a result of habitat alteration, species introductions and climate-moderated changes in disturbance regimes. Native conservation and nonnative species management could benefit from greater understanding of critical factors promoting or inhibiting native and nonnative success in the absence of human-caused ecosystem change. The objectives of this dissertation were to (1) explain spatiotemporal patterns of native and nonnative success, (2) describe native and nonnative response to uncharacteristic wildfire disturbance, and (3) test the hypothesis that wildfire disturbance has differential effects on native and nonnative species. This research was conducted across six sites in three reaches (tributary, canyon, and valley) of the unfragmented and largely-unmodified upper Gila River Basin of southwestern New Mexico. Secondary production was measured to quantify success of native and nonnative fishes prior to wildfires during 2008-2011. Native fish production was greater than nonnatives across a range of environmental conditions, although nonnative fish, tadpole, and crayfish production could approach or exceed that of native macroinvertebrates and fishes in canyon habitats, a warmwater tributary, or in valley sites, respectively. The second objective was accomplished by measuring biomass changes of a warmwater native and nonnative community during 2010-2013 before and after consecutive, uncharacteristic wildfires. Several native insect and fish taxa decreased after both wildfires, whereas nonnative decreases were most pronounced for salmonids and more limited for other taxa. Finally, effects of uncharacteristic wildfires followed by extreme flooding on metapopulations of native and nonnative fishes were contrasted during 2008-2013. Wildfire and flood disturbances increased extinction probabilities of all native fishes while leaving many nonnative fishes unaffected. These findings revealed a swinging pendulum of native and nonnative success, wherein wildfire disturbance resulted in a pendulum swing in favor of nonnatives. Ensuring the pendulum swings back in favor of natives will be facilitated by management activities that decrease wildfire size and intensity and maintain inherent ecosystem resilience.

<p>Habitat loss, fragmentation, and degradation threaten the World’s ecosystems and species. These, and other threats, will likely be exacerbated by climate change. Due to a limited budget for conservation, we are forced to prioritize a few areas over others. These places are selected based on their uniqueness and vulnerability. One of the most famous examples is the biodiversity hotspots: areas where large quantities of endemic species meet alarming rates of habitat loss. Most of these places are in the tropics, where species have smaller ranges, diversity is higher, and ecosystems are most threatened.</p><p> Species distributions are useful to understand ecological theory and evaluate extinction risk. Small-ranged species, or those endemic to one place, are more vulnerable to extinction than widely distributed species. However, current range maps often overestimate the distribution of species, including areas that are not within the suitable elevation or habitat for a species. Consequently, assessment of extinction risk using these maps could underestimate vulnerability.</p><p>In order to be effective in our quest to conserve the World’s most important places we must: 1) Translate global and national priorities into practical local actions, 2) Find synergies between biodiversity conservation and human welfare, 3) Evaluate the different dimensions of threats, in order to design effective conservation measures and prepare for future threats, and 4) Improve the methods used to evaluate species’ extinction risk and prioritize areas for conservation. The purpose of this dissertation is to address these points in Colombia and other global biodiversity hotspots.</p><p>In Chapter 2, I identified the global, strategic conservation priorities and then downscaled to practical local actions within the selected priorities in Colombia. I used existing range maps of 171 bird species to identify priority conservation areas that would protect the greatest number of species at risk in Colombia (endemic and small-ranged species). The Western Andes had the highest concentrations of such species—100 in total—but the lowest densities of national parks. I then adjusted the priorities for this region by refining these species ranges by selecting only areas of suitable elevation and remaining habitat. The estimated ranges of these species shrank by 18–100% after accounting for habitat and suitable elevation. Setting conservation priorities on the basis of currently available range maps excluded priority areas in the Western Andes and, by extension, likely elsewhere and for other taxa. By incorporating detailed maps of remaining natural habitats, I made practical recommendations for conservation actions. One recommendation was to restore forest connections to a patch of cloud forest about to become isolated from the main Andes.</p><p>For Chapter 3, I identified areas where bird conservation met ecosystem service protection in the Central Andes of Colombia. Inspired by the November 11th (2011) landslide event near Manizales, and the current poor results of Colombia’s Article 111 of Law 99 of 1993 as a conservation measure in this country, I set out to prioritize conservation and restoration areas where landslide prevention would complement bird conservation in the Central Andes. This area is one of the most biodiverse places on Earth, but also one of the most threatened. Using the case of the Rio Blanco Reserve, near Manizales, I identified areas for conservation where endemic and small-range bird diversity was high, and where landslide risk was also high. I further prioritized restoration areas by overlapping these conservation priorities with a forest cover map. Restoring forests in bare areas of high landslide risk and important bird diversity yields benefits for both biodiversity and people. I developed a simple landslide susceptibility model using slope, forest cover, aspect, and stream proximity. Using publicly available bird range maps, refined by elevation, I mapped concentrations of endemic and small-range bird species. I identified 1.54 km2 of potential restoration areas in the Rio Blanco Reserve, and 886 km2 in the Central Andes region. By prioritizing these areas, I facilitate the application of Article 111 which requires local and regional governments to invest in land purchases for the conservation of watersheds.</p><p>Chapter 4 dealt with elevational ranges of montane birds and the impact of lowland deforestation on their ranges in the Western Andes of Colombia, an important biodiversity hotspot. Using point counts and mist-nets, I surveyed six altitudinal transects spanning 2200 to 2800m. Three transects were forested from 2200 to 2800m, and three were partially deforested with forest cover only above 2400m. I compared abundance-weighted mean elevation, minimum elevation, and elevational range width. In addition to analyzing the effect of deforestation on 134 species, I tested its impact within trophic guilds and habitat preference groups. Abundance-weighted mean and minimum elevations were not significantly different between forested and partially deforested transects. Range width was marginally different: as expected, ranges were larger in forested transects. Species in different trophic guilds and habitat preference categories showed different trends. These results suggest that deforestation may affect species’ elevational ranges, even within the forest that remains. Climate change will likely exacerbate harmful impacts of deforestation on species’ elevational distributions. Future conservation strategies need to account for this by protecting connected forest tracts across a wide range of elevations.</p><p> In Chapter 5, I refine the ranges of 726 species from six biodiversity hotspots by suitable elevation and habitat. This set of 172 bird species for the Atlantic Forest, 138 for Central America, 100 for the Western Andes of Colombia, 57 for Madagascar, 102 for Sumatra, and 157 for Southeast Asia met the criteria for range size, endemism, threat, and forest use. Of these 586 species, the Red List deems 108 to be threatened: 15 critically endangered, 29 endangered, and 64 vulnerable. When ranges are refined by elevational limits and remaining forest cover, 10 of those critically endangered species have ranges < 100km2, but then so do 2 endangered species, seven vulnerable, and eight non-threatened ones. Similarly, 4 critically endangered species, 20 endangered, and 12 vulnerable species have refined ranges < 5000km2, but so do 66 non-threatened species. A striking 89% of these species I have classified in higher threat categories have <50% of their refined ranges inside protected areas. I find that for 43% of the species I assessed, refined range sizes fall within thresholds that typically have higher threat categories than their current assignments. I recommend these species for closer inspection by those who assess risk. These assessments are not only important on a species-by-species basis, but by combining distributions of threatened species, I create maps of conservation priorities. They differ significantly from those created from unrefined ranges.</p> / Dissertation

<p>Human use of the oceans is increasingly in conflict with conservation of endangered species. Methods for managing the spatial and temporal placement of industries such as military, fishing, transportation and offshore energy, have historically been post hoc; i.e. the time and place of human activity is often already determined before assessment of environmental impacts. In this dissertation, I build robust species distribution models in two case study areas, US Atlantic (Best et al. 2012) and British Columbia (Best et al. 2015), predicting presence and abundance respectively, from scientific surveys. These models are then applied to novel decision frameworks for preemptively suggesting optimal placement of human activities in space and time to minimize ecological impacts: siting for offshore wind energy development, and routing ships to minimize risk of striking whales. Both decision frameworks relate the tradeoff between conservation risk and industry profit with synchronized variable and map views as online spatial decision support systems.</p><p>For siting offshore wind energy development (OWED) in the U.S. Atlantic (chapter 4), bird density maps are combined across species with weights of OWED sensitivity to collision and displacement and 10 km2 sites are compared against OWED profitability based on average annual wind speed at 90m hub heights and distance to transmission grid. A spatial decision support system enables toggling between the map and tradeoff plot views by site. A selected site can be inspected for sensitivity to a cetaceans throughout the year, so as to capture months of the year which minimize episodic impacts of pre-operational activities such as seismic airgun surveying and pile driving.</p><p>Routing ships to avoid whale strikes (chapter 5) can be similarly viewed as a tradeoff, but is a different problem spatially. A cumulative cost surface is generated from density surface maps and conservation status of cetaceans, before applying as a resistance surface to calculate least-cost routes between start and end locations, i.e. ports and entrance locations to study areas. Varying a multiplier to the cost surface enables calculation of multiple routes with different costs to conservation of cetaceans versus cost to transportation industry, measured as distance. Similar to the siting chapter, a spatial decisions support system enables toggling between the map and tradeoff plot view of proposed routes. The user can also input arbitrary start and end locations to calculate the tradeoff on the fly.</p><p>Essential to the input of these decision frameworks are distributions of the species. The two preceding chapters comprise species distribution models from two case study areas, U.S. Atlantic (chapter 2) and British Columbia (chapter 3), predicting presence and density, respectively. Although density is preferred to estimate potential biological removal, per Marine Mammal Protection Act requirements in the U.S., all the necessary parameters, especially distance and angle of observation, are less readily available across publicly mined datasets.</p><p>In the case of predicting cetacean presence in the U.S. Atlantic (chapter 2), I extracted datasets from the online OBIS-SEAMAP geo-database, and integrated scientific surveys conducted by ship (n=36) and aircraft (n=16), weighting a Generalized Additive Model by minutes surveyed within space-time grid cells to harmonize effort between the two survey platforms. For each of 16 cetacean species guilds, I predicted the probability of occurrence from static environmental variables (water depth, distance to shore, distance to continental shelf break) and time-varying conditions (monthly sea-surface temperature). To generate maps of presence vs. absence, Receiver Operator Characteristic (ROC) curves were used to define the optimal threshold that minimizes false positive and false negative error rates. I integrated model outputs, including tables (species in guilds, input surveys) and plots (fit of environmental variables, ROC curve), into an online spatial decision support system, allowing for easy navigation of models by taxon, region, season, and data provider.</p><p>For predicting cetacean density within the inner waters of British Columbia (chapter 3), I calculated density from systematic, line-transect marine mammal surveys over multiple years and seasons (summer 2004, 2005, 2008, and spring/autumn 2007) conducted by Raincoast Conservation Foundation. Abundance estimates were calculated using two different methods: Conventional Distance Sampling (CDS) and Density Surface Modelling (DSM). CDS generates a single density estimate for each stratum, whereas DSM explicitly models spatial variation and offers potential for greater precision by incorporating environmental predictors. Although DSM yields a more relevant product for the purposes of marine spatial planning, CDS has proven to be useful in cases where there are fewer observations available for seasonal and inter-annual comparison, particularly for the scarcely observed elephant seal. Abundance estimates are provided on a stratum-specific basis. Steller sea lions and harbour seals are further differentiated by ‘hauled out’ and ‘in water’. This analysis updates previous estimates (Williams & Thomas 2007) by including additional years of effort, providing greater spatial precision with the DSM method over CDS, novel reporting for spring and autumn seasons (rather than summer alone), and providing new abundance estimates for Steller sea lion and northern elephant seal. In addition to providing a baseline of marine mammal abundance and distribution, against which future changes can be compared, this information offers the opportunity to assess the risks posed to marine mammals by existing and emerging threats, such as fisheries bycatch, ship strikes, and increased oil spill and ocean noise issues associated with increases of container ship and oil tanker traffic in British Columbia’s continental shelf waters.</p><p>Starting with marine animal observations at specific coordinates and times, I combine these data with environmental data, often satellite derived, to produce seascape predictions generalizable in space and time. These habitat-based models enable prediction of encounter rates and, in the case of density surface models, abundance that can then be applied to management scenarios. Specific human activities, OWED and shipping, are then compared within a tradeoff decision support framework, enabling interchangeable map and tradeoff plot views. These products make complex processes transparent for gaming conservation, industry and stakeholders towards optimal marine spatial management, fundamental to the tenets of marine spatial planning, ecosystem-based management and dynamic ocean management.</p> / Dissertation

Master of Science / Department of Plant Pathology / Eduard D. Akhunov / Loretta C. Johnson / Big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii Vitman) is an ecologically dominant grass of the North American grasslands with precipitation-dependent productivity. However, climatic predictions for big bluestem’s dominant range in the Great Plains include increased periods of drought. The main objectives of this research were to determine the extent of neutral and non-neutral genetic differentiation and diversity among putative big bluestem ecotypes using amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers. This is the first study of both neutral and non-neutral genetic diversity of big bluestem which also includes source populations of well-described ecotypes studied in reciprocal common gardens. A total of 378 plants were genotyped from 11 source prairies, originating from one of three ecoregions (Central Kansas, Eastern Kansas, and Illinois). Using two AFLP primer sets, 387 polymorphic markers (error rate 9.18%) were found. Un-rooted neighbor joining tree and principle-component analyses showed continuous genetic differentiation between Kansas and Illinois putative ecotypes, with genetic overlap occurring between Kansas ecotypes. Analysis of molecular variance showed high diversity within-prairie sites (80%) relative to across-prairies (11%), and across- ecoregions (9%) (p<0.001). Within-prairie genetic diversity levels were similar among ecoregions (84-92%), with the highest genetic variation maintained in Illinois prairies (92%). Population structure analyses supported K=6 genetic clusters across the environmental gradient, with Kansas prairies belonging to three main genetic groups, and Illinois prairies having largely divergent allele frequencies from Kansas prairies. Interestingly, BAYESCAN analysis of the three putative ecotypes identified eight F[subscript]ST-outlier AFLP loci under potential diversifying selection. Frequency patterns of loci under diversifying selection were further linked to geo-environmental descriptors including precipitation, temperature severity, diurnal temperature variation, prairie location, and elevation. The observed allele frequency divergence between Kansas and Illinois ecotypes suggests tallgrass restorations should consider possible maladaptation of non-local ecotypes and genetic swamping. However, high within-prairie genetic variation may help individual big bluestem populations withstand climatic variability.

Master of Science / Department of Biology / Jack F. Cully, Jr. / Black-tailed prairie dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus) are a species of management and conservation concern. Prairie dogs have lost both habitat and occupied area due to plague, which is caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, pest control, and habitat conversion to agricultural land. Our goals were to estimate survival rates and dispersal rates, and to compare methods for estimating abundance of black-tailed prairie dogs for both management and conservation. We trapped black-tailed prairie dogs at four small National Parks from April 2009 through August 2011. Prairie dogs were trapped and marked for two trapping sessions per year in order to estimate seasonal rates of apparent survival. Apparent survival rates were estimated using the package RMark in R to construct models for program MARK. We found estimates to vary according to field site, sex, year, and season (summer or winter). Possible reasons for the differences in survivorship among sites could be presence of disease, quality of forage, predation, or frequency of dispersal. Visual counts were also conducted each trapping session beginning in April of 2010 to estimate abundance. Mark-recapture, mark-resight, and visual counts were compared to determine which method would be the most effective for estimating abundance of prairie dogs. We found mark-resight to produce the most precise estimates of abundance. While it costs more money to conduct a mark-resight estimate than visual counts because of repeated sessions, they produced significantly different results from one another 75% of the time, which was especially apparent on sites that had some form of visual barriers such as tall vegetation and uneven ground. However, if further information is needed in terms of sex ratios, age ratios, or the exact number of prairie dogs, then mark-recapture is the only method that can be used. Land managers need to address the level of accuracy needed, topography, and vegetation height before choosing which sampling method is best for the prairie dog towns in question. Finally, we looked at rates of intercolony and intracolony dispersal by placing 149 VHF collars and 6 GPS collars on prairie dogs at three colonies. Intracolony dispersal was also monitored through visual observation and trapping records over the three years of the study. We found 23 intracolony and eight intercolony dispersal events. Combined, these three studies offer insight not only into monitoring of prairie dog populations but also potential influence by plague both within and among colonies of prairie dogs.

The Roatan Spiny-tailed Iguana (Ctenosaura oedirhina) is endemic to the 146-km2 island of Roatn, Honduras. Harvesting for consumption, fragmentation of habitat, and predation by domestic animals threaten this lizard. It is currently listed as Endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), as threatened by the Honduran government, and is on Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). This species has been geographically fragmented and genetically isolated into small subpopulations that are declining in density. With data gathered from use/availability surveys, resource selection functions were used to identify habitats and environmental variables associated with their presence. Results indicate that protection from harvesting is the most important factor in determining their distribution. These high-density populations are currently restricted to ~0.6 km2. Organisms living in small, isolated populations with very restricted ranges are at higher risk of extirpation due to various direct and indirect forces. Mark-recapture-resight surveys and distance sampling have been used to monitor the populations since 2010 and 2012 respectively. The data show that the high-density populations are declining. The current population size is estimated to be 4130-4860 individuals in 2015. A population viability analysis (PVA) was conducted to identify the most pressing threats and specific life history traits that are affecting this decline. The analysis estimates that if current trends persist, the species will be extinct in the wild in less than ten years. Adult mortality is a main factor and female mortality specifically characterizes this decline. In order for this species to persist over the next fifty years, adult mortality needs to be reduced by more than 50%. A lack of enforcement of the current laws results in the persistence of the main threat, poaching for consumption, thus altering the species distribution and causing high adult mortality. This is complicated by social customs and a lack of post primary education. Management changes could mitigate this threat and slow the population decline. Recommendations include an education campaign on the island, increased enforcement of the current laws, and breeding of C. oedirhina in situ and ex situ for release into the wild. / Includes bibliography. / Dissertation (Ph.D.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2015. / FAU Electronic Theses and Dissertations Collection

The green iguana (Iguana iguana) is an herbivorous lizard native to South America and is invasive in south Florida. The severe weather in January 2010 negatively impacted many species and significantly reduced the green iguana population, specifically adult females and juveniles of both sexes. Fifteen adult iguanas from two locations in Palm Beach County were tagged and had blood drawn for blood chemistry and HPLC steroid hormone analysis. Individuals were tracked for home range/territory analysis and behavioral observations. Blood chemistry values of cold-stunned individuals showed abnormal values similar to those reported in cold-stunned sea turtles. Territoriality and breeding behaviors, including nesting and head-bob displays, decreased or ceased during the following months. Steroid hormone concentrations were detected by HPLC and were not consistent with results from RIA studies in the literature. / by Ashley Campbell. / Thesis (M.S.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2011. / Includes bibliography. / Electronic reproduction. Boca Raton, Fla., 2011. Mode of access: World Wide Web.

A criação voluntária de áreas protegidas privadas está em expansão ao redor do mundo, sendo reconhecida como uma importante estratégia para conservação da biodiversidade e complemento dos esforços públicos de conservação. No Brasil, estas áreas são chamadas Reservas Particulares do Patrimônio Natural (RPPNs), áreas criadas em caráter perpétuo, por iniciativa de seus proprietários e reconhecidas pelo poder público. No entanto, apesar de já existirem mais de 930 RPPNs que protegem 680.000 ha no país, ainda existe uma lacuna de informações sobre o tema. Esse trabalho pretende contribuir para diminuição desse problema, utilizando como área de estudo o Estado do Mato Grosso do Sul. Seus objetivos foram identificar as motivações dos proprietários ao solicitarem a criação dessas unidades, os incentivos e dificuldades enfrentadas para criação e gestão, e caracterizar essas áreas e a eficácia da sua gestão. Para isso, seus proprietários ou gestores foram entrevistados e foram consultados os processos de solicitação de criação dessas áreas e outros documentos fornecidos pelos proprietários. Para a avaliação do manejo, foi necessária a adaptação da metodologia de Cifuentes, Izurieta e Faria (2000) para o contexto das áreas analisadas. Ao todo, foram identificados 65 processos de solicitação de RPPNs, mas apenas 36 áreas são efetivamente reconhecidas atualmente. O tempo de tramitação dos processos de reconhecimento tem sido alto e é influenciado pelos procedimentos institucionais, pelo rigor das exigências documentais e pelo número de pendências existentes. As entrevistas com os responsáveis pelas RPPNs demonstraram que estes consideram o processo de criação lento e burocrático. A conservação é a principal motivação para sua criação, mas fatores econômicos e pessoais também são citados. O único incentivo oferecido pelo poder público é a isenção do imposto territorial rural. Outros incentivos para a criação e gestão destas áreas têm sido dados por ONGs e a Associação de Proprietários de RPPN, principalmente na região da Bacia do Alto Paraguai. A conservação e a pesquisa são objetivos de manejo de todas as RPPNs, mas a educação ambiental e turismo também são bastante citados. Com relação à avaliação do manejo, o conjunto de RPPNs obteve 57,6% do total ótimo possível. Mais da metade das áreas foi classificada como gestão muito inferior ou inferior, 17,6% como mediana, e 29,4% como padrão elevado ou de excelência. Os âmbitos mais bem avaliados foram usos atuais e político e legal; os piores foram o planejamento e ordenamento e o conhecimento. Entre os pontos fortes do conjunto estão: compatibilidade das suas atividades com as normas, reconhecimento legal, porcentagem de área alterada, e demarcação física. Entre os pontos mais fracos estão: monitoramento e retroalimentação, tamanho, programas de manejo, informações e plano de manejo. A proteção parece ser uma das maiores preocupações dos proprietários, que de forma geral, parecem reconhecer as principais fragilidades destas unidades. / The voluntary creation of private protected areas has rapidly increased around the world and it has been recognized as an important strategy for biodiversity conservation, adding public efforts to conservation. In Brazil, these areas are called Private Reserves of Natural Heritage (PRNHs), and they are created for perpetuity, by their owners\' initiative, and recognized by the public administration. However, despite the fact that there are already over 930 PRNHs, which are protecting around 680.000 ha in the country, there is still lack of information concerning this topic. This work intends to address this problem, using the case of Mato Grosso do Sul State. The main objective is to identify the owner\'s motivations for the establishment of PNHRs, the driving forces and the difficulties faced by their recognition and management, as well as to characterize these areas and their management effectiveness. To that purpose, the owners or managers were interviewed. There has been also documental analysis and the documents for the application of these areas\' establishment and other related documents provided by the owners were consulted. For the management evaluation, an adaptation of the Cifuentes, Izurieta and Faria (2000) methodology was necessary for analyzing the areas context. In the overall, 65 applications for the establishment of PNHRs were identified, but only 36 areas are currently effectively recognized. The procedural time for the establishment process has been high, and it is affected by institutional procedures, several documentation requirements, and by the lack of required documentation. The interviews with owners and managers showed that they think the processes are slow and bureaucratic. The conservation is the main motivation for their creation, but economic and personal factors were also mentioned. The only incentive offered by the government was the rural property tax exemption. On the other hand, NGOs and the PNHR Owners\' Association have encouraged the creation and management of these areas, mainly for the High Paraguay Basin. Conservation and research are management objectives of all PNHRs, but environmental education and tourism are also fairly mentioned. Regarding management evaluation, the group of PNHRs reached 57,6% of the total possible optimum. More than half of the areas had management classified as very inferior or as quality inferior standards, 17,6% as medium, and 29,4% as high or excellency standards. The set of indicators best evaluated were current uses and political and legal. The worst set of indicators were planning and instructing and knowledge. The strength issues of the group are: the compatibility of their activities with legislation, legal recognition, percentage of disturbed area, and physical demarcation. The weakest points are: monitoring and feedback, size, management programs, information and management plan. The protection of these areas seems to be a major concern for their owners, who usually seem to recognize the main weaknesses of these protected areas.