abstract: Desert environments provide considerable challenges to organisms because of high temperatures and limited food and water resources. Accordingly, desert species have behavioral and physiological traits that enable them to cope with these constraints. However, continuing human activity as well as anticipated further changes to the climate and the vegetative community pose a great challenge to such balance between an organism and its environment. This is especially true in the Arabian Desert, where climate conditions are extreme and environmental disturbances substantial. This study combined laboratory and field components to enhance our understanding of dhub (Uromastyx aegyptius) ecophysiology and determine whether habitat protection influences dhub behavior and physiology. Results of this study showed that while body mass and body condition consistently diminished as the active season progressed, they were both greater in protected habitats compared to non-protected habitats, regardless of season. Dhubs surface activity and total body water decreased while evaporative water loss and body temperature increased as the active season progressed and ambient temperature got hotter. Total body water was also significantly affected by habitat protection. Overall, this study revealed that, while habitat protection provided more vegetation, it had little effect on seasonal changes in surface activity. While resource availability in protected areas might allow for larger dhub populations, unprotected areas showed similar body morphometrics, activity, and body temperatures. By developing an understanding of how different coping strategies are linked to particular ecological, morphological, and phylogenetic traits, we will be able to make more accurate predictions regarding the vulnerability of species. By combining previous studies pertaining to conservation of protected species with the results of my study, a number of steps in ecosystem management are recommended to help in the preservation of dhubs in the Kuwaiti desert. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Biology 2017

Submitted by Ana Sant'Ana (ana.mattos@ufscar.br) on 2016-09-27T13:22:35Z No. of bitstreams: 1 DissDNR.pdf: 3312861 bytes, checksum: a24fee2dff32e7e1d56b8841598c6d2e (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Marina Freitas (marinapf@ufscar.br) on 2016-10-04T18:47:41Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 DissDNR.pdf: 3312861 bytes, checksum: a24fee2dff32e7e1d56b8841598c6d2e (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Marina Freitas (marinapf@ufscar.br) on 2016-10-04T18:47:49Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 DissDNR.pdf: 3312861 bytes, checksum: a24fee2dff32e7e1d56b8841598c6d2e (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-10-04T18:47:56Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 DissDNR.pdf: 3312861 bytes, checksum: a24fee2dff32e7e1d56b8841598c6d2e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-06-23 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / The jacutinga (Aburria jacutinga) is a large frugivore bird in the process of extinction primarily by hunting and habitat destruction. Endemic of Atlantic Forest, currently has limited distribution and isolated populations. For this reason, is the focus of some conservation programs aimed at the captive-breeding for later release and/or reintroduction into unique environments of the species. This study used behavioral assessments in a pre-release rearing system, and promoted training aimed at food aspects and predator recognition. It was observed 31 jacutingas and produced a ethogram with 68 behavioral acts, grouped into eight categories. After, were held training sessions to food type and antipredator type. Food training intended to assess food acceptance and promotion of foraging behavior. It offered 32 different food items, six of which were not accepted. It was noticed diversification acceptance of food items, especially fruits and seeds up to 20 mm, but also leaves and flowers. For foraging behaviors observed, as the capture and handling of food items, they are performed only when the jacutinga achieves the item with its beak. This may be the reason for the jacutingas remain for long periods in the same tree, when it finds items for their food. For the antipredator training it were used three models of predators: a feline (Leopardus tigrinus), one raptor (Pseudastur polionotus) and domestic dogs. In these training sessions were observed eight jacutingas. Both training sessions were positive, with behavioral responses of surveillance and defense to the models used. Also, memory tests were performed where the same models were presented for jacutingas, after 30 days of training. The results of the memory tests indicate that there was a learning result of antipredator training. The jacutingas showed the expected responses (similar to the training) when the models were presented. It highlights the importance of the work, because the results are assisting in the rehabilitation process of individuals to be used in future releases. The entire process developed in this study is being used experimentally as a pilot in" Protocolo de Soltura de Jacutingas " coordinated by SAVE Brazil. The training and the tests are intended to increase the survival rate of birds used in release programs, through techniques that enhance and/or induce the production of behaviors that express survival skills in nature; in this case, foraging skills and predator recognition as behavioral indicators to obtain individual fitness. / A jacutinga (Aburria jacutinga) é uma espécie de ave frugívora de grande porte em processo de extinção devido principalmente à caça e destruição do hábitat. Endêmica da Mata Atlântica, encontra-se atualmente com distribuição bem reduzida e com populações isoladas, sendo foco de alguns programas de conservação, que visam a criação em cativeiro, para sua posterior soltura e/ou reintrodução em ambientes originais da espécie. O presente trabalho utilizou de avaliações comportamentais, em um sistema de criação pré-soltura,promoveu treinamentos visando aspectos alimentares e de reconhecimento de predador. Foram observadas 31 jacutingas e elaborado um etograma com 68 atos comportamentais, agrupados em oito categorias. Depois, realizou-se os treinamentos do tipo alimentar e antipredação. Os treinamentos alimentares visaram a avaliação da aceitação alimentar e promoção de comportamentos de forrageio. Foram oferecidos 32 itens alimentares diferentes, dos quais seis não foram aceitos. Percebeu-se uma diversificação na aceitação de itens alimentares, em especial frutos e sementes com até 20 mm, mas também folhas e flores. Já os comportamentos de forrageio observados, como captura e manipulação dos itens alimentares, são realizados somente quando a jacutinga alcança o item com seu bico. Esse pode ser o motivo das jacutingas ficarem por grandes períodos numa mesma árvore, quando localiza itens de sua alimentação. Como treinamento antipredação foram utilizados três modelos de predadores: um felino (Leopardus tigrinus), um rapinante (Pseudastur polionotus) e cão doméstico. Nestes treinamentos foram observadas oito jacutingas. Ambos os treinamentos mostraram-se positivos, apresentando respostas comportamentais de vigilância e defesa aos modelos utilizados. Também foram realizados testes de memória, onde se apresentavam os mesmos modelos as jacutingas, após 30 dias do treinamento. Os resultados dos testes de memória indicam que houve um aprendizado, resultante dos treinamentos antipredação. As jacutingas apresentaram as respostas esperadas (semelhantes às observadas nos treinamentos), quando apresentados os modelos utilizados nos treinamentos. Destaca-se a importância do trabalho desenvolvido, pois os resultados obtidos estão auxiliando no processo de reabilitação de indivíduos a serem utilizados em futuras solturas. Todo o processo desenvolvido nesse projeto está sendo utilizado experimentalmente como piloto no “Protocolo de Soltura de Jacutingas”, coordenado pela SAVE Brasil. Os treinamentos e testes aplicados visam aumentar a taxa de sobrevivência das aves utilizadas em programas de soltura, por meio de técnicas que reforcem e/ou induzamapresentação de comportamentos que expressem habilidades de sobrevivência em natureza; no caso, habilidades de forrageio e reconhecimento de predador como indicadores comportamentais para obtenção de fitness individuais.

abstract: A functioning food web is the basis of a functioning community and ecosystem. Thus, it is important to understand the dynamics that control species behaviors and interactions. Alterations to the fundamental dynamics can prove detrimental to the future success of our environment. Research and analysis focus on the global dynamics involved in intraguild predation (IGP), a three species subsystem involving both competition and predation. A mathematical model is derived using differential equations based on pre-existing models to accurately predict species behavior. Analyses provide sufficient conditions for species persistence and extinction that can be used to explain global dynamics. Dynamics are compared for two separate models, one involving a specialist predator and the second involving a generalist predator, where systems involving a specialist predator are prone to unstable dynamics. Analyses have implications in biological conservation tactics including various methods of prevention and preservation. Simulations are used to compare dynamics between models involving continuous time and those involving discrete time. Furthermore, we derive a semi-discrete model that utilizes both continuous and discrete time series dynamics. Simulations imply that Holling's Type III functional response controls the potential for three species persistence. Complicated dynamics govern the IGP subsystem involving the white-footed mouse, gypsy moth, and oak, and they ultimately cause the synchronized defoliation of forests across the Northeastern United States. Acorn mast seasons occur every 4-5 years, and they occur simultaneously across a vast geographic region due to universal cues. Research confirms that synchronization can be transferred across trophic levels to explain how this IGP system ultimately leads to gypsy moth outbreaks. Geographically referenced data is used to track and slow the spread of gypsy moths further into the United States. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are used to create visual, readily accessible, displays of trap records, defoliation frequency, and susceptible forest stands. Mathematical models can be used to explain both changes in population densities and geographic movement. Analyses utilizing GIS softwares offer a different, but promising, way of approaching the vast topic of conservation biology. Simulations and maps are produced that can predict the effects of conservation efforts. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.S. Applied Biological Sciences 2012

abstract: Epidemiological theory normally does not predict host extinction from infectious disease because of a host density threshold below which pathogens cannot persist. However, host extinction can occur when a biotic or abiotic pathogen reservoir allows for density-independent transmission. Amphibians are facing global population decline and extinction from the emerging infectious disease chytridiomycosis, caused by the fungus Batrachochytrium dentrobatidis (Bd). I use the model species Eleutherodactylus coqui to assess the impact of Bd on terrestrial direct-developing frog species, a common life history in the tropics. I tested the importance of two key factors that might influence this impact and then used laboratory experiments and published field data to model population-level impacts of Bd on E. coqui. First, I assessed the ontogenetic susceptibility of E. coqui by exposing juvenile and adult frogs to the same pathogen strain and dose. Juveniles exposed to Bd had significantly lower survival rates compared with control juveniles, while adult frogs often cleared infection. Second, I conducted experiments to determine whether E. coqui can become infected with Bd indirectly from contact with zoospores shed onto vegetation by an infected frog and from direct exposure to an infected frog. Both types of transmission were observed, making this the first demonstration that amphibians can become infected indirectly in non-aquatic habitats. Third, I tested the hypothesis that artificially-maintained cultures of Bd attenuate in pathogenicity, an effect known for other fungal pathogens. Comparing two cultures of the same Bd strain with different passage histories revealed reduced zoospore production and disease-induced mortality rates for a susceptible frog species (Atelopus zeteki) but not for the less-susceptible E. coqui. Finally, I used a mathematical model to project the population-level impacts of chytridiomycosis on E. coqui. Model analysis showed that indirect transmission, combined with either a high rate of zoospore production or low rate of zoospore mortality, is required for Bd to drive E. coqui populations below an extinction threshold. High rates of transmission plus frequent re-infection could lead to poor recruitment of infected juveniles and population decline. My research adds further insight into how emerging infectious disease is contributing to the loss of amphibian biodiversity. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Biology 2013

abstract: Species distribution modeling is used to study changes in biodiversity and species range shifts, two currently well-known manifestations of climate change. The focus of this study is to explore how distributions of suitable habitat might shift under climate change for shrub communities within the Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area (SMMNRA), through a comparison of community level to individual species level distribution modeling. Species level modeling is more commonly utilized, in part because community level modeling requires detailed community composition data that are not always available. However, community level modeling may better detect patterns in biodiversity. To examine the projected impact on suitable habitat in the study area, I used the MaxEnt modeling algorithm to create and evaluate species distribution models with presence only data for two future climate models at community and individual species levels. I contrasted the outcomes as a method to describe uncertainty in projected models. To derive a range of sensitivity outcomes I extracted probability frequency distributions for suitable habitat from raster grids for communities modeled directly as species groups and contrasted those with communities assembled from intersected individual species models. The intersected species models were more sensitive to climate change relative to the grouped community models. Suitable habitat in SMMNRA's bounds was projected to decline from about 30-90% for the intersected models and about 20-80% for the grouped models from its current state. Models generally captured floristic distinction between community types as drought tolerance. Overall the impact on drought tolerant communities, growing in hotter, drier habitat such as Coastal Sage Scrub, was predicted to be less than on communities growing in cooler, moister more interior habitat, such as some chaparral types. Of the two future climate change models, the wetter model projected less impact for most communities. These results help define risk exposure for communities and species in this conservation area and could be used by managers to focus vegetation monitoring tasks to detect early response to climate change. Increasingly hot and dry conditions could motivate opportunistic restoration projects for Coastal Sage Scrub, a threatened vegetation type in Southern California. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.A. Geography 2014

abstract: Since its inception in 1973, the Endangered Species Act has been met with both praise and criticism. More than 40 years later, the Act is still polarizing, with proponents applauding its power to protect species and critics arguing against its perceived ineffectiveness and potential mismanagement. Recovery plans, which were required by the 1988 amendments to the Act, play an important role in organizing efforts to protect and recover species under the Act. In 1999, in an effort to evaluate the process, the Society for Conservation Biology commissioned an independent review of endangered species recovery planning. From these findings, the SCB made key recommendations for how management agencies could improve the recovery planning process, after which the Fish and Wildlife Service and the National Marine Fisheries Service redrafted their recovery planning guidelines. One important recommendation called for recovery plans to make threats a primary focus, including organizing and prioritizing recovery tasks for threat abatement. Here, I seek to determine the extent to which SCB recommendations were incorporated into these new guidelines, and if, in turn, the recommendations regarding threats manifested in recovery plans written under the new guidelines. I found that the guidelines successfully incorporated most SCB recommendations, except those that addressed monitoring. As a result, recent recovery plans have improved in their treatment of threats, but still fail to adequately incorporate threat monitoring. This failure suggests that developing clear guidelines for monitoring should be an important priority in future ESA recovery planning. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.S. Biology 2014

abstract: Many wildlife species that are essential to human livelihoods are targeted with the aim of extracting short-term benefits. Overexploitation, resulting from failed common-pool resource governance, has endangered the sustainability of large animal species, in particular. Rights-based approaches to wildlife conservation offer a possible path forward. In a wildlife market, property rights, or shares of an animal population, are allocated to resource users with interests in either harvest or preservation. Here, I apply the Social-Ecological Systems (SES) framework (Ostrom, 2009) to identify the conditions under which the ecological, social, and economic outcomes of a conservation market are improved compared to the status quo. I first consider three case studies (Bighorn sheep, white rhino, and Atlantic Bluefin tuna) all of which employ different market mechanisms. Based on the SES framework and these case studies, I then evaluate whether markets are a feasible management option for other socially and ecologically significant species, such as whales (and similar highly migratory species), and whether market instruments are capable of accommodating non-consumptive environmental values in natural resource decision making. My results suggest that spatial and temporal distribution, ethical and cultural relevance, and institutional histories compatible with commodification of wildlife are key SES subsystem variables. Successful conservation markets for cross-boundary marine species, such as whales, sea turtles, and sharks, will require intergovernmental agreements. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.S. Biology 2014

Orientador: Lea Maria Leme Strini Velho / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Geociencias / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-14T08:23:11Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Rodrigues_MarciaGoncalves_D.pdf: 2692461 bytes, checksum: d4f521db618b6f590b6bd4f2ea7e18c6 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009 / Resumo: O Brasil tem especial responsabilidade em relação à Convenção para Diversidade Biológica já que é portador de uma das maiores biodiversidades do mundo e vivencia o desafio diário da conservação e do uso sustentável dos seus recursos. Tarefa nada fácil posto que as dificuldades em termos de pesquisa científica, desenvolvimento tecnológico e recursos financeiros tomam a dimensão deste legado. E se o Século passado evidenciou o caráter conflituoso que reveste a relação "homem x ambiente" e "sociedade x natureza", trouxe também a questão ambiental como uma abordagem geral nas tratativas deste tema. A emergência da questão ambiental global ao mesmo tempo em que evidenciou a necessidade de tratar o meio ambiente a partir de um enfoque interdisciplinar, expôs a fragilidade da ciência moderna para lidar com um pensar complexo. Todos estes fatores fizeram com que a ecologia, em pouco mais de cem anos, ganhasse destaque na agenda global com um duplo e simultâneo desenvolvimento no mundo, um dentro da sociedade civil, como movimento social ecologista e outro, dentro da academia, como disciplina científica. A ecologia como ciência experimentou ramificações que resultaram numa série de sub-disciplinas em seu interior, entre elas a Biologia da Conservação (BC), surgida com a missão de reduzir a perda da diversidade biológica. Desta perspectiva, este estudo se propôs a analisar o perfil que a pesquisa científica necessita ter para subsidiar a conservação da biodiversidade brasileira e como está a formação interdisciplinar dos pesquisadores com perfil para a conservação da biodiversidade no Brasil. O estudo abordou dois aspectos: a formação dos pesquisadores e a institucionalização da pesquisa para a conservação da biodiversidade no Brasil. Para tanto foram analisadas a formação acadêmica da pós-graduação na área de Ecologia e Meio Ambiente e a estruturação do Instituto Chico Mendes de Conservação da Biodiversidade (ICMBio). O estudo concluiu que apesar da BC ter surgido na década de oitenta e do Brasil possuir uma das maiores diversidades biológicas do planeta, a situação da pesquisa para a conservação no Brasil pode ser considerada incipiente e a formação oferecida pela pós-graduação nacional é estritamente disciplinar. Além disso, os indicadores de desempenho do Sistema de CT&I Nacional favorecem pesquisas disciplinares e de curto prazo, situação completamente oposta ao perfil que a pesquisa para a conservação da biodiversidade necessita ter. / Abstract: Brazil is one of the most important mega diverse countries and as such it has a special responsibility within the Convention on Biological Diversity. The conservation and sustainable use of the natural resources is a daily challenge, one which requires scientific knowledge generation, technological development and financial resources. Since the last century it is possible to detect controversial ideas concerning the relations between "man x environment" and "society x nature". From this debate emerged the notion of the environmental question as a general approach to negotiation to reach agreement. Such environmental question points to a need of an interdisciplinary approach, indicating a fragility of modern science to deal with complex thought. The result was that ecology split into two strains, namely as social movement and as a scientific discipline. The latter experienced a branching that resulted in a series of sub disciplines, among which Conservation Biology (CB) that has the mission to reduce the loss of biological diversity. From this perspective, the study attempted to identify and analyze how research activities on biodiversity are organized in Brazil. It departed from the argument that in order to generate knowledge that can be used for intervention, biodiversity research needs to be interdisciplinary and, many times, carried out for long periods. The study approached two aspects of knowledge production in biodiversity: the training of new researchers (at graduate schools in ecology) and the institutionalization of research for Brazilian biodiversity conservation at the Biodiversity Conservation Institute Chico Mendes (ICMBio). The study concludes that, despite the fact that Conservation Biology as a scientific discipline is now over 80 years old, research activities for conservation in Brazil are still incipient, that is, have not been fully institutionalized. In addition, graduate programs offered a strictly disciplinary education and narrow research analytical frameworks. It is argued that this situation may be credited, at least in part, to the research funding criteria of the agencies supporting graduate education which are driven by short term goals. / Doutorado / Politica Cientifica e Tecnologica / Doutor em Política Científica e Tecnológica

Abstract Alteration of natural habitat usually has two kinds of effects on the populations living in the area. No single organism is able to survive or reproduce without its habitat, so it is very easy to understand and predict direct habitat loss effects. Moreover, fragmentation effects can enhance the effects of pure habitat loss, and in some cases, the effects of fragmentation can exceed the effects of habitat loss. In addition, harvesting by humans has significantly shaped wildlife populations and done so probably well before any other human activity. Different types of anthropogenic change in nature often happen simultaneously and their separate effects are not necessarily easily disentangled. I studied the effects of forest fragmentation on bird populations and communities on different levels, as well as the effects of harvesting on grouse populations. My results suggest that in natural systems there is always a multitude of factors influencing the population distribution and abundance. This complexity makes it difficult to discern and predict the consequences of human activities, and any additional human activity, such as habitat fragmentation or harvesting, can cause seemingly unexpected population consequences. My results also suggest that considering protected areas in isolation of the matrix is not sufficient to understanding species distribution and abundance within the conservation network. All management practices in commercial forests affect the landscape where protected areas are embedded, but simultaneously, conservation actions also influence the management planning. Therefore, an integrated approach is needed to sustain forest biodiversity. Finally, I showed that there are marked differences in responses to fragmentation among regions and among ecologically different species, which are partly associated with the evolutionary history of the biota in different regions. Therefore, patterns and processes in one region may not be transferrable to other regions. Moreover, disentangling the fragmentation effects on bird species requires careful consideration when selecting for research a combination of life-history variables that can distinguish among the underlying demographic mechanisms, because the mechanisms and the variables susceptible to these mechanisms may vary among regions. / Tiivistelmä Eliön habitaatin muokkaamisella on yleensä kahdentyyppisiä seurauksia. Habitaatin hävittämisen seuraukset ovat suoraviivaisia, koska yksikään laji ei pysty säilymään elossa tai lisääntymään ilman lajityypillistä habitaattiaan. Pirstoutumisvaikutukset puolestaan voivat voimistaa habitaatin hävittämisen vaikutusta ja olla joissakin tapauksissa jopa niitä voimakkaampia. Lisäksi metsästys on muokannut eläinpopulaatioita luultavasti ensimmäisenä ihmistoiminnan muotona. Erilaiset ihmistoiminnan vaikutukset ovat usein yhtäaikaisia, eikä niiden vaikutuksia ole aina helppoa erottaa toisistaan. Tutkin väitöskirjatyössäni metsien pirstoutumisen vaikutuksia lintupopulaatioihin ja – yhteisöihin sekä metsästyksen vaikutuksia kanalintupopulaatioihin. Tulosteni mukaan luonnonoloissa on aina useita tekijöitä vaikuttamassa populaation kokoon ja levinneisyyteen. Tämä tekee ihmistoiminnan vaikutuksista hyvin vaikeasti ennustettavia. Niin ikään tulosteni mukaan suojelualueiden lajiston levinneisyyttä ja runsautta ei voi ymmärtää, mikäli ympäröivien alueiden ominaisuuksia ei oteta huomioon. Osoitin myös, että vasteissa pirstoutumiseen on huomattavia eroja maantieteellisten alueiden ja ekologisesti erilaisten linturyhmien välillä, mitkä osaltaan johtuvat eri alueiden erilaisesta evolutiivisesta historiasta. Tästä syystä vasteita pirstoutumiseen ei voida välttämättä yleistää alueelta toiselle. Tulosteni mukaan pirstoutumisvaikutusten erottelu vaatii huolellista tutkimuksen suunnittelua, jotta lajeihin vaikuttavat demografiset tekijät voidaan tunnistaa, koska näissä voi olla huomattavaa alueellista vaihtelua.

An ecosytem-based spatial conservation plan for the South African sandy beaches. Sandy beaches are valuable ecosystems. They support a collection of species that is unique, comprising many endemic species, and provide a number of key ecosystem goods and services, including scenic vistas for human recreation, nesting sites for turtles and birds, and important areas for biogeochemical recycling, water filtration and purification. However, sandy beaches have not been well understood or appreciated as ecosystems, and consequently have a legacy of poor coastal management. In many instances this has lead to a "tyranny of small decisions", where multiple, seemingly insignificant management decisions and actions have resulted in complete transformation and degradation of the shoreline in several places. In addition to inappropriate management strategies, beaches are also poorly represented in conservation areas. Further, where they are recognised as being "conserved" in marine protected areas, this often is a false sense of protection because the far more sensitive dune portion of the littoral active zone is invariably not included in the reserve. In short, there is a need for a new way to approach sandy beach conservation and management that includes the system (dunes, intertidal beaches and surf zones) as a whole. On one hand, the approach should make provision for use of the abundant natural resources and opportunities associated with sandy shores in ways that are sustainable and contribute to biodiversity stewardship - through ecosystem-based management and marine spatial planning. But, on the other hand, it must simultaneously contribute to securing a sufficient amount of the key ecological attributes of beaches (habitats, biodiversity and processes) in a network of reserves, to ensure that the ecosystem, natural resources, and services all persist in perpetuity - through systematic conservation planning. The aim of this Thesis is to integrate these into a single approach, which I call ecosystem-based spatial conservation planning for sandy beaches, using the South African sandy shores as a case study. To achieve this broad aim, the Thesis is divided into three parts. Part 1 deals with establishing baseline information by quantifying spatial patterns in sandy beach habitats (Chapter 1), biodiversity, key assemblages and processes, and outstanding physical features (Chapter 2). First, mapping sandy beach habitats is a challenge given the vast, linear extent of shorelines and significant resources required to complete the project. Therefore, a novel approach was derived using statistical techniques (conditional inference trees) to identify physical features of beaches that can be observed on Google Earth (or similar) imagery, and that can provide good predictions of beach morphodynamic (habitat) types. Based on the results of this analysis, sandy beaches (and all other coastal habitat types) were mapped digitally in ArcGIS. Second, spatial patterns in sandy beach biodiversity (vertebrates, macrofauna, microflora and foredune plants) were mapped by compiling existing data on the distributions of key species that have been well studied or mapped previously (vertebrates and foredune plants), and by niche modelling (macrofauna and microflora). For the latter, data from all previous sandy-beach sampling events in South Africa were compiled from published and unpublished sources, and supplemented with additional sampling of 23 beaches along the national shoreline, targeting macrofauna and phytoplankton. Altogether, the macrofauna database comprised data from 135 sites and 186 sampling events, and the microflora (phytoplankton and microphytobenthos) database comprised data from 73 sites and 510 samples. The probabilistic distribution of each "resident" species (present at 10 or more sites) was modelled in MaxEnt version 3.3.3k, probability thresholds were determined statistically (to convert the data into predicted presence-absence), and displayed as a digital map. A composite biodiversity map was compiled, and key trends in species richness and endemism along the national shoreline were quantified. To supplement biodiversity proper, additional valued-features of sandy beaches were mapped, including: important assemblages; unique habitat features; and sites associated with key ecological processes. Part 2 considers threats to sandy beaches in the context of deriving an appropriate management strategy that seeks to provide for use of the coast, but in a way that has least overall impact to the ecosystem. A method for assessing cumulative threats to sandy beaches is adapted from an existing framework (Chapter 4). This entailed compiling a list of threats to beaches, and scoring these (out of 10) in terms of the severity of their respective impacts to beaches, and how long it would take the ecosystem to recover should the threat be removed. The scoring was based on the collective expert opinion of the scientific community working on sandy beaches, at a workshop during the VIth International Sandy Beach Symposium 2012. To standardize the scores and ensure broad applicability, a base case scenario of a pristine beach was established, and maximum theoretical scores were provided for this context. The method for integrating these scores into a spatial, cumulative threat assessment was then determined. In Chapter 5, the maximum theoretical scores (from Chapter 4) were down-scaled to suit the current threat regime to the South African sandy beaches, and the cumulative threat assessment methodology was applied. From this analysis, the most threatened beaches in South Africa, and the most important threats were highlighted. A decision-support tool for managers was derived from the site-specific cumulative threat-impact scores, based first on the degree of permanent habitat transformation, and second on the cumulative impact of other stressors where the impacts these stressors have could potentially be mitigated or ameliorated. Part 3 concerns conservation of beaches explicitly. It addresses how much of which valued features of beaches is required to ensure their long-term persistence, and the design of a network of beaches in South Africa that are of ecological importance and should be set aside as reserves. Conservation targets are set in Chapter 6, using species-area curves to determine a baseline percentage-area required to protect sandy beach habitats, which is modified using heuristic principles based on habitat rarity and threat status (from a recent national assessment). A fixed target was applied to all species, also modified by heuristic principles, and another fixed target was applied to key assemblages and processes.