La thèse s'est donnée pour objectif d'élaborer une approche innovante de la corruption, permettant de saisir les réalités complexes du phénomène et d'expliquer sa persistance dans le monde émergent. Suite à une analyse critique de l'orthodoxie économique de la corruption - la compréhension actuelle la plus répandue comprenant un mix d'approches théoriques et culminant avec le modèle de bonne gouvernance -, nous soulignons la faiblesse d'attention accordée aux facteurs structurels. Dans notre recherche nous avons effectué une enquête de terrain (méthode Delphi) et une analyse statistique exploratoire multidimensionnelle qui ont permit des nouvelles interprétations du phénomène observé. En nous appuyant sur les enseignements des écoles hétérodoxes contemporaines (unifiées au sein de l'économie politique institutionnaliste décrit par A. Caillé), construisant une approche positive et compréhensive basée sur une démarche holindividualiste, nous proposons une analyse structuro-institutionnaliste de la corruption. Avec un renouveau paradigmatique sur la rationalité et la coordination des agents économiques, nous avons reconstruit le cadre interprétatif de la corruption. Dans ce but, nous avons élaboré le concept de la corruption institutionnalisée, qui décrit les situations où la corruption n'est plus une déviance, mais, au contraire, est devenue une règle de comportement. Nous avons étudié les mécanismes de la corruption institutionnalisée à travers la mise en évidence du rôle des attitudes culturelles, des principes inhérents aux réseaux sociaux et des caractéristiques néo-patrimoniales des États contemporains. Ainsi, nous avons expliqué les origines de la corruption, qui renvoient à son historicité et à l'encastrement (culturel, social, étatique), les mécanismes de fonctionnement reposant sur des coordinations hybrides, ainsi que les impacts et liens ambigus de la corruption institutionnalisée avec la croissance. Notre analyse dynamique de la corruption se penche sur les questions de transformations des systèmes néo-patrimoniaux à travers la compréhension d'évolutions institutionnelles, où la path dependency et les actions des clans politico-économiques expliquent la résistance et la reproduction des systèmes corrompus. Nous proposons des scénarii de sortie du clientélisme des États néo-patrimoniaux et mettons en avant les enjeux et les leviers d'une évolution graduelle endogène. Nous avons attiré l'attention sur le rôle du clientélisme dans la construction démocratique (un vecteur paradoxal), où les réseaux de réciprocité rendent la démocratisation possible. Nous avons mis en lumière deux moments clés dans une évolution vertueuse : la déconcentration (ou dispersion) des pouvoirs à travers l'autonomisation de certains réseaux par rapport aux grands clans politico-économiques, et la diversification des ressources de nouvelles unités, rendue possible notamment à travers le processus d'insertion dans l'économie mondiale. La thèse aboutit à une série de propositions concrètes pour l'amélioration de la pertinence des programmes anti-corruption. Nous reconsidérons le rôle de l'extérieur et mettons en évidence la supériorité des programmes bottom-up dans le combat contre la corruption, celui-ci devant reposer sur les évolutions graduelles des structures sociétales. La portée de notre approche dépasse le monde émergent et est applicable à différents systèmes économiques. En effet, la corruption institutionnalisée n'est pas spécifique aux pays émergents et ne peut être donc réduite à une dynamique de développement. / This thesis develops an innovative approach of corruption in order to capture the complex reality of the phenomenon and explain its persistence in the emerging world. After a critical analysis of the economic orthodoxy of corruption, i.e. the most common understanding of corruption based on a patchwork of theoretical approaches culminating with the model of good governance, we emphasise the weakness of attention on structural factors. In our research we conducted expert's opinion survey (Delphi method) and multidimensional exploratory statistical analysis (factoral analysis) which led to new interpretations of the observed phenomenon. Relying on lessons of contemporary heterodox schools (unified within the institutionalist political economy described by A.Caillé), building a positive and comprehensive approach based on holindividualism, we propose a structuro-institutionalist analysis of corruption. With a renewed paradigm on rationality and coordination of economic agents we rebuilt the interpretative framework of corruption. In this regard, we have developed the concept of institutionalised corruption that describes situations where corruption is no longer a deviance but a rule of behaviour. We studied the mechanisms of institutionalised corruption by highlighting the role of cultural attitudes, of inherent principles in social networks and neo-patrimonial characteristics of contemporary states. In this way, we explain the origins of corruption referring to its historicity and embededness (cultural, social, institutionnal), the operating mechanisms based on hybrid coordination, as well as the effects and ambiguous ties between institutionalised corruption and economic growth. Our dynamic analysis of corruption focuses on transformation patterns in neo-patrimonial systems through the understanding of institutional evolutions, where the path dependency and actions of politico-economic clans explain resistance and reproduction of corrupt systems. We suggest scenarios to get out of clientelism in neo-patrimonial states, where we put forward issues and levers of gradual and endogenous evolutions. In our analysis we emphasise the role of clientelism in democratic construction (a paradoxal vector), where reciprocity networks make democratisation possible. We highlighted two key moments in a virtuous evolution: the decentralisation (or dispersion) of powers among clientelist networks and the diversification of autonomous networks resources, which are notably possible throught integration in global economy. The thesis leads to a set of concrete proposals for improving the relevance of anti-corruption programmes. We reconsider the role of international integration and highlight the superiority of the bottom-up programmes in the fight against corruption, which must be based on the gradual evolution of societal structures. The significance of our analysis exceeds the emerging world and is applicable to different economic systems. Indeed, institutionalised corruption is not specific to emerging or developing countries and therefore can not be reduced to the dynamic of development.

O presente trabalho investiga a necessidade de tipificação do delito de corrupção no setor privado, no ordenamento jurídico brasileiro. Para tanto, necessário aprofundar o estudo do fenômeno da corrupção, bem como a moderna interpretação de seu conteúdo pela comunidade jurídica internacional. Partindo de uma perspectiva de Direito Comparado, é possível verificar a evolução no controle da corrupção transnacional, fruto de diferentes compromissos assumidos por diversos Estados, em verdadeiro esforço conjunto para erradicação das práticas corruptivas e seus nefastos efeitos ao mundo globalizado. Nesse cenário, exsurge a relevância do debate acerca da ampliação do conceito de corrupção para além da esfera pública, abarcando também condutas estritamente relacionadas ao setor privado, de modo que alguns países hodiernamente já tipificam essa nova modalidade delitiva em seus ordenamentos. Indispensável acurado exame da forma como o delito de corrupção entre particulares ganhou contornos na legislação e doutrina estrangeiras para desenvolver o modelo pátrio de incriminação da conduta, uma vez que tal tema é hoje objeto de proposta legislativa específica. Assim, verificase a atualidade e importância da pesquisa aqui proposta, cujo escopo é auxiliar no desenvolvimento de um tipo penal adequado ao bem jurídico protegido, levando-se em conta, principalmente, os documentos internacionais que impulsionam sua criação. / This paper intends to investigate the need for private-sector corruption crime classification in the Brazilian legal system. Therefore, it is necessary to deepen the studies about corruption’s historical roots, as well as the modern interpretation of its content by the international legal community. Through the mechanisms of Comparative Law it is possible to verify corruption’s combat evolution in a supranational level, consequence of various commitments assumed by various States, in true combined efforts to eradicate corruption acts and their disastrous effects in the globalized world. In this scenery, the relevance in debating the widening of corruption’s concept to beyond the public spheres arises, embracing also the conducts strictly related to the private sector, in a way that some countries already class the new crime form in their systems. Necessary rightful exam of the way corruption crime between individuals has outlined both international legislation and doctrine to develop the native method of the behavior incrimination, here is that said theme is nowadays subject of specific legislation proposal. Thus, it is verified the timeliness and importance of the research here proposed, which scope is to help the development of a crime class adequate to the protected juridical asset, taking into account, mainly, the international documents that impel its creation.

La corruption affecte tous les secteurs de la vie de la société, aussi bien le secteur public, le secteur privé que le secteur politique. Compte tenu de la spécificité de chacun de ces domaines, elle acquiert ses caractéristiques et prend différentes formes (publique, privée et politique). La transparence, couplée à la responsabilisation "accountability"), agit en tant qu'instrument de prévention ainsi que de répression de la corruption, en exposant les actes des agents au public et en mettant en évidence les faits de corruption. La transparence, de cette manière, poursuit la corruption partout où elle existe indépendamment de sa forme. Ainsi, dans la lutte contre la corruption, en agissant comme une antithèse, elle joue le rôle de l'«antiforme» de la corruption, sa forme s'adaptant aux différentes formes de corruption qu'elle combat. Pourtant, la transparence n'est pas une solution miracle et a un rôle spécifique et limité dans la lutte contre la corruption. Elle doit être complétée par des mesures comme l'incrimination, le contrôle externe et interne, la prévention des conflits d'intérêt etc. Le Conseil de l'Europe, l'institution dont le but est la promotion de la démocratie, considère également la transparence comme un élément crucial de la prévention et de la lutte contre la corruption. Pourtant, ni le Conseil, ni aucune autre organisation internationale, ne détermine les critères de la transparence. Il existe même une confusion entre la notion de transparence et d'autres notions voisines. Toutefois, le Conseil a pu imposer aux États membres certaines mesures qui, sans être désignées expressément comme telles, relèvent de la transparence; ces mesures ont été exigées de manière spontanée, et formulées au cas par cas selon la nécessité des États. Pour déterminer l'étendue des actions du Conseil, il était nécessaire de définir non seulement les formes, mais également le contenu de la transparence. Ses trois composantes sont l'accessibilité, la communication et l'ouverture. Les actions du Conseil ne sont pas développées de la même manière concernant tous les domaines de la transparence. Si elles sont développées en matière politique et peu nombreuses en matière privée, les réglementations restent partielles et sont toujours en phase d'évolution concernant les volets administratif, judiciaire ou législatif. Les actions du Conseil ne couvrent pas non plus la totalité des actes de la transparence. Si elles sont plus développées en ce qui concerne l'accessibilité, la sensibilisation ou le signalement, elles restent en phase d'évolution concernant la communication et l'ouverture. Certaines des lacunes découlent de la spécificité de la mission du Conseil de l'Europe qui, ayant pour but la promotion de la démocratie, est avant tout une organisation politique. Dans les cas où le Conseil de l'Europe a fixé des exigences pour la transparence, il a mis en place des mécanismes de suivi par le biais de son institution spécialisée - le GRECO - pour s'assurer de la bonne mise en œuvre de ces exigences. La pratique du GRECO a eu un impact considérable sur le renforcement et l'harmonisation des législations nationales. Toutefois, elle s'est trouvée limitée par l'approche pratique de cette institution ainsi que par les réticences des États dans la mise en œuvre de ses recommandations. / Corruption affects all the sectors of society, both the public, private and the political sectors, Given the specificity of each of these areas, it acquires its characteristics and takes different forms (public, private and political). Transparency, coupled with accountability, acts as a means of prevention and repression of corruption. Transparency in this way pursues corruption wherever it exists independently of its form. Acting as an antithesis, it plays the role of "antiform" of corruption, its shape adapting to different forms of corruption that it fights. However. transparency is not a miracle solution and has a specific and limited role in the fight against corruption. It must be complemented by measures such as criminalization, external and internal control, prevention of conflicts of interest etc. The Council of Europe, the institution whose purpose is to promote democracy, considers also transparency as a crucial element in the prevention and the fight against corruption. However, neither the Council nor any other international organization, determines determines the criteria of transparency. There is even confusion between the notion of transparency and other related concepts. However, the Council could impose measures on Member States which, without being specifically designated as such, are the transparency measures; these measures were required in a spontaneous manner. and made on a case by case basis according to the need of States. To determine the extent of the Council's actions, it was necessary to define not only the forms but also the content of the transparency, Its three components are accessibility, communication and openness. Council's actions are not developed in the same way in all the areas of transparency. For cases where the Council of Europe set requirements for transparency, it put in place mechanisms to monitor through its specialized agency - GRECO - to ensure the proper implementation of these requirements. GRECO's practice had a significant impact on the strengthening and harmonization of national legislations. However. it has been limited by the practical approach of this institution as well as the reluctance of States in the implementation of its recommendations.

O presente trabalho investiga a necessidade de tipificação do delito de corrupção no setor privado, no ordenamento jurídico brasileiro. Para tanto, necessário aprofundar o estudo do fenômeno da corrupção, bem como a moderna interpretação de seu conteúdo pela comunidade jurídica internacional. Partindo de uma perspectiva de Direito Comparado, é possível verificar a evolução no controle da corrupção transnacional, fruto de diferentes compromissos assumidos por diversos Estados, em verdadeiro esforço conjunto para erradicação das práticas corruptivas e seus nefastos efeitos ao mundo globalizado. Nesse cenário, exsurge a relevância do debate acerca da ampliação do conceito de corrupção para além da esfera pública, abarcando também condutas estritamente relacionadas ao setor privado, de modo que alguns países hodiernamente já tipificam essa nova modalidade delitiva em seus ordenamentos. Indispensável acurado exame da forma como o delito de corrupção entre particulares ganhou contornos na legislação e doutrina estrangeiras para desenvolver o modelo pátrio de incriminação da conduta, uma vez que tal tema é hoje objeto de proposta legislativa específica. Assim, verificase a atualidade e importância da pesquisa aqui proposta, cujo escopo é auxiliar no desenvolvimento de um tipo penal adequado ao bem jurídico protegido, levando-se em conta, principalmente, os documentos internacionais que impulsionam sua criação. / This paper intends to investigate the need for private-sector corruption crime classification in the Brazilian legal system. Therefore, it is necessary to deepen the studies about corruption’s historical roots, as well as the modern interpretation of its content by the international legal community. Through the mechanisms of Comparative Law it is possible to verify corruption’s combat evolution in a supranational level, consequence of various commitments assumed by various States, in true combined efforts to eradicate corruption acts and their disastrous effects in the globalized world. In this scenery, the relevance in debating the widening of corruption’s concept to beyond the public spheres arises, embracing also the conducts strictly related to the private sector, in a way that some countries already class the new crime form in their systems. Necessary rightful exam of the way corruption crime between individuals has outlined both international legislation and doctrine to develop the native method of the behavior incrimination, here is that said theme is nowadays subject of specific legislation proposal. Thus, it is verified the timeliness and importance of the research here proposed, which scope is to help the development of a crime class adequate to the protected juridical asset, taking into account, mainly, the international documents that impel its creation.

La probité relative aux devoirs envers autrui et aux devoirs de la vie civile, a pour synonyme le mot «intégrité» auquel s'attache l'idée particulière d'une pureté qui ne se laisse entamer ni corrompre. En ce qui concerne les atteintes à la probité, il convient d’appréhender la probité comme un devoir dont le manquement est pénalement sanctionné. En effet, le droit pénal français punit les manquements au devoir de probité qui sont généralement le fait de personnes exerçant des fonctions publiques. Ces incriminations se distinguent les unes des autres par leurs éléments constitutifs, leurs modalités d’accomplissement ou leurs finalités. Les atteintes à la probité méritent d’être étudiées compte tenu de la qualité singulière de leurs auteurs qui ne sont pas des délinquants ordinaires mais des représentants de la puissance publique.A travers cette étude des atteintes à la probité, nous tenterons de mettre en exergue l’importance considérable de ces infractions qui touchent à la puissance publique et la nécessité d’une répression accentuée destinée à sauvegarder les intérêts fondamentaux de la Nation, à prévenir les conflits d’intérêts, à moraliser la vie publique et à rappeler à l’ordre les personnes exerçant une fonction publique et soumises à l’exigence d’exemplarité. / The righteousness relative to the duties to others and to the duties of the civil life, has for synonym the word "integrity" to which becomes attached the particular idea of a purity which is allowed affect nor corrupt. As regards infringements on the righteousness, it is advisable to arrest the righteousness as a duty the breach of which is penally punished. Indeed, the French criminal law punishes the breaches in the duty of righteousness which are generally the fact of people holding public functions. These incriminations distinguish themselves some of the others by their constituent elements, their modalities of fulfillment or their ends. Infringements on the righteousness deserve to be studied considering the singular quality of their authors who are not ordinary delinquents but representatives of the public authorities. Through this study of infringements on the righteousness, we shall try to highlight the considerable importance of these breaches which affect the public authorities and the necessity of a stressed repression intended to protect the fundamental interests of the Nation, to prevent conflicts of interests, to moralize the public life and to call in to order the holding people a public function and subjected to the requirement of exemplary nature.

L'objectif de cette thèse est d'élargir le champ d'étude relatif à l'aide étrangère, en examinant aussi bien les conséquences des flux d'aide sur les pays en développement que les implications et tenants des politiques d'aide pour les économies développées. Dans le Chapitre 1, nous montrons que l’aide peut améliorer les institutions politiques lorsqu'elle est allouée par des agences multilatérales. Ses bénéfices sont d'autant plus notables que l'économie de l'Etat récipiendaire se délie des rentes pétrolières. Le Chapitre 2 révèle qu’aucune relation causale n’existe entre l’aide et la corruption au sein des Etats bénéficiaires. Le Chapitre 3 montre que l’aide améliore l'efficience technique avec laquelle les Etats bénéficiaires assurent leur production nationale, d'autant plus que les pays bénéficiaires se démocratisent et contrôlent leur inflation. Le Chapitre 4 révèle que les politiques d'aide, de migrations et de chômage sont intimement imbriquées. En particulier, la décision d'allouer des fonds d'aide étrangère est tributaire de la santé économique des Etats émetteurs (le taux de chômage) et soumise aux pressions des flux migratoires. / The objective of this dissertation is to contribute to the existing knowledge about foreign aid, either about its consequences on the developing world or about its implications for developed economies. Chapter 1 shows that aid improves public institutions when aid is allocated by multilateral agencies. The benefits of aid are even more valuable in countries not reliant on their oil resources rents. In Chapter 2 we analyse the possible Granger causal relationships running between foreign aid and corruption in developing countries. Our data reveal that aid does not result in more or less corruption, and reversely corruption does not exert a significant influence on future assistance. In Chapter 3 we evidence that foreign assistance enhances the recipient country's efficiency of production, in particular when the country has democratic and macroeconomic sound institutions. Chapter 4 reports our data analysis on donors' domestic policies. Aid, migration and unemployment policies are recognized to be tightly connected for OECD donors. Specifically, aid policies are partly shaped by the burden of unemployment and the stock of migrants observed in the donor country.

Magister Legum - LLM / The aim of this research paper is to examine the legal framework for the recovery of corruptly-acquired assets, with particular emphasis on the Nigerian situation. Its primary focus is a detailed examination of the legal mechanisms for the recovery of such assets in the context of international asset recovery. Despite the success of the Nigerian government in recovering the Abacha loot,8 siphoning off of public funds by public office holders continues, and charges of fraud persist against top bank executives alleged to have converted depositors’ funds fraudulently. The prevailing criminal or conviction-based forfeiture mechanism in Nigeria appears inadequate to deal effectively with these situations. The need to enhance capacity through the adoption of civil or non-conviction based forfeiture laws therefore becomes imperative. / South Africa

Magister Legum - LLM

Magister Legum - LLM / The legacy of apartheid may be likened to a Hydra. This mythical beast was rumoured to be large in stature, with poisonous breath. However, the trait it was better known for was that it possessed many heads and for every one head that was cut off, two would grow in its place. The elimination of the apartheid system effectively cut off the head of this hydra, severely wounding the beast but giving birth to various other terrors. Public sector corruption is one of those terrors. As an individual who was too young to be a part of the battle against apartheid, I have recognised that there is still a battle that needs to be won. As corruption continually thwarts the efforts of those who died for the liberation of South Africa and hinders the upliftment and development of the State, it becomes necessary to combat this scourge. However, before going into battle one must first understand the battle arena. Thus, the purpose of this dissertation is to gain understanding as to how the South African Government has attempted to combat corruption by means of policy and legislation. The information gained during this process may be used to identify areas of weakness, which may be considered in restrategising anti-corruption efforts. This battle against corruption needs to include all South Africans as public sector corruption has a negative impact on all who find themselves within our boarders. Thus, we cannot call ourselves truly liberated before this enemy of good governance is defeated.

Magister Legum - LLM