Synapses are necessary for a functional nervous system. To form a synapse, a neuron must first extend an axon, then select its proper synaptic target, and finally, a series of adhesion and adaptor molecules must work together to assemble synaptic machinery adjacent to the postsynaptic target. Faulty synapses lead to many neurological disorders, and despite the medical relevance, the genetic mechanisms that control synaptogenesis are incompletely understood. This dissertation characterizes the novel role of two proteins, Collapsin Response Mediator Protein (CRMP) and Tramtrack 69 (Ttk69), in synapse formation. CRMPs have previously been shown to mediate growth cone collapse during axon outgrowth and are thought to do so by regulating microtubule assembly and polarity. However, the role CRMP plays at the synapse is unknown. We remove CRMP from Drosophila R7 photoreceptor neurons and find that R7s lacking CRMP form ectopic contacts that contain active zones and are apposed to incorrect targets. To our surprise, we found no alterations in microtubule polarity or organization, and instead found evidence that CRMP might regulate the pattern of calcium influx. In live, developing R7 terminals, we found that R7 calcium transients are normally spontaneous and aperiodic. Interestingly, loss of CRMP increases the frequency and amplitude of these calcium transients. Our results suggest a novel mechanism by which CRMP regulates activity-dependent synapse development. And they indicate that the pattern of calcium transients, even when aperiodic, is critical for this process. The transcription factor, Ttk69, broadly functions in Drosophila cells to inhibit expression of pro-neural genes. However, temporal expression of Ttk69 in R7s is necessary and sufficient to halt R7 axon growth at their final synaptic target layer. R7s and R8 photoreceptors use different but conserved molecular pathways to control both layer selection and tiling, therefore, I am investigating whether ttk69 is similarly required to regulate R8 synaptogenesis. I have found that ttk69 is expressed in R8 photoreceptor neurons and loss of ttk69 from R8s prevents their axons from extending to their final synaptic target layer. Unlike in R7s, Ttk does not function through the TGFβ/Activin pathway in R8s, but likely functions by preventing expression of Netrins repulsive receptor, Unc-5 to control synaptic target selection. This dissertation includes co-authored material. / 10000-01-01

L'expansion d'une tumeur résulte d'une multiplication non contrôlée des cellules tumorales, de l'acquisition de leur capacité à migrer, ainsi que de la genèse du réseau vasculaire nécessaire à leur survie. Ces propriétés reposent en partie sur la mise en jeu de molécules impliquées dans le guidage cellulaire telles que les sémaphorines, initialement décrites pour leur implication dans le guidage axonal au cours du développement du système nerveux. Leurs fonction s'étendent actuellement au contrôle de l'angiogénèse de la migration des précurseurs nerveux ainsi que du cycle cellulaire. Les voies de signalisation intra-cellulaires des sémaphorines ne sont que partiellement connues. Les CRMP (CollapsinResponse Mediator Protein) font partie de leurs médiateurs intracytoplasmiques, décrites au cours de la rétraction du cône de croissance induit par la sémaphorine 3A (Sema3A). L'implication en pathologie tumorale de ces voies de signalisation a été découverte par l!étude de gènes tel que celui de la sémaphorine 3F (Sema3F), présents dans les régions délétées du chromosome 3 de certains types de tumeurs non neuroendocrines du poumon L'implication des CRMP a été également révélée par les syndromes neurologiques paranéoplasiques (SNP). Ces syndromes résultent d'une auto-immunisation humorale des patients contre des antigènes exprimés par la tumeur dont ils sont atteints. C'est le cas de CRMP5, protéine, identifiée dans notre laboratoire comme cible des auto-anticorps anti-CV2/ CRMP5 dans le cadre des SNP associés à des tumeurs neuroendocrines du poumon, les carcinomes à petites cellules (CPC) ainsi qu'à des thymomes. Alors que les thymomes sont des tumeurs bénignes, les CPC représentent 20% des carcinomes pulmonaires et sont, avec les carcinomes neuroendocrines à grandes cellules, les formes les plus agressives des tumeurs du poumon. Notre objectif était d'étudier l'implication physiopathologique des CRMP dans les différents types de carcinomes du poumon et dans les thymomes ainsi que dans les tumeurs du système nerveux central en relation avec la signalisation des sémaphorines. Nous avons ainsi démontré une expression exclusive de CRMP5 par les carcinomes neuroendocrines du poumon et les gliomes de haut grade par comparaison aux carcinomes non neuroendocrines et aux thymomes. CRMP5 n'est pas exprimée dans les carcinomes non neuroendocrines du poumon desquels sont dérivés les lignées H460 et H157. Ces observations ont été complétées par deux collaborations à des études portant sur les voies de signalisation des sémaphorines dans des modèles cellulaires de ces tumeurs. La première étude a montré que Sema3F, surexprimée dans la lignée H157 possède un effet anti-tumoral. La voie de signalisation de Sema3F nécessite neuropiline 2, l'inactivation de la MAPK (Mitogen Activated Protein Kinase) Erk 1/2 et entraîne l!inhibition de l'adhésion des intégrines !vß3, avec participation de CRMP1 et CRMP4 mais pas de CRMP5. La deuxième étude a établi que sous Sema3A la voie de signalisation d'Erk ½ est activée par le complexe de récepteur NRP1/VEGFR1 lors de la migration de précurseurs nerveux. Dans ces conditions Sema3A entraîne des modulations des expressions des CRMP2, CRMP4 et CRMP5 suggérant leur implication. Ainsi, ce travail montre que l!activation de certaines voies de signalisation des sémaphorines sont spécifiques des types histopathologiques et des grades des tumeurs. Ces voies de signalisations sont médiées par des complexes de récepteurs précis et mettent souvent en jeu les CRMP / Tumour growth is a consequence of uncontrolled cell proliferation, cell migration and angiogenesis. These functions are partly controlled by molecules involved in cellular guidance. Among these molecules, the semaphorins, previously described in axonal guidance during development, interestingly control cell migration, angiogenesis, apoptosis and proliferation. Signalling pathways of Semaphorins are only partially known. CRMP (Collapsin Response Mediator Protein) are involved in the signalling semaphoring pathway, precisely as mediator of Sema3A induced growth cone collapse. Implication of these signalling pathways in tumour growth was initially discovered with Sema3F localised in frequently deleted regions of the third chromosome found in non neuroendocrine lung carcinoma. CRMP involvement was also discovered in neurological paraneoplastic syndromes (NPS). These syndromes result of an auto-immunisation against tumour antigens present in some patients. CRMP5 was identified by our laboratory as a target of anti-CV2/CRMP5 auto-antibodies seen in some NPS associated with small cell lung carcinoma (SCLC) and thymoma. While thymoma are benign tumours, SCLC account for 20% of all lung tumour pathological subtypes and represent with large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma the most clinically aggressive subtypes of lung tumours. Our aim was to study the physiopathological role of CRMP among the different subtypes of lung carcinoma, thymoma and central nervous system tumours and their relationship with semaphorin signalling pathways. We showed a specific diffuse expression of CRMP5 by high grade neuroendocrine carcinoma and high grade glioma tumour cells. CRMP5 is neither expressed by non neuroendocrine lung carcinoma nor H460 or H157 derived cell lines, nor thymoma. Additionally, 2 collaborative studies were undertaken, focusing on semaphorin cell signalling in tumour derived cell lines. The first study showed an anti tumour effect of Sema3F over-expressed in H157 cell line mediated by neuropilin 2, CRMP2 and CRMP4 but not by CRMP5. It showed that Sema3F stimulation led to the inactivation of Erk1/2 MAPK (Mitogen Activated Protein Kinase) and inhibition of !vß3 integrin mediated adhesion. The second study showed that Sema3A induced DEV cells migration was mediated by neuropilin1/VEGFR1 receptor complex and activated Erk1/2 pathway. CRMP2, CRMP4 and CRMP5 expression changes suggested their involvement in that pathway. Thus, these data show that some semaphorin pathways activation were specific of tumour pathological subtype and grade. These signalling pathways were precisely mediated by specific receptor complexes and different CRMPs isoforms

Etude de l'implication de CRMP4, un partenaire de MAP6, dans la voie de signalisation sémaphorine 3E.Pendant le développement embryonnaire, les neurones établissent des milliards de connexions. Ces connexions ne sont pas aléatoires, mais précisément orientées, dirigées par des molécules de guidage situées dans l’environnement cellulaire. Le branchement inapproprié de ces neurones a de graves conséquences sur les fonctions sensorielles, motrices et cognitives du système nerveux, aboutissant à des pathologies neurologiques et psychiatriques telle que la schizophrénie. Ainsi la mutation de certaines protéines impliquées dans le guidage de ces connexions, comme MAP6 ou CRMP4, peut entraîner des perturbations conduisant à des prédispositions pour le développement de telles pathologies. En effet l'absence de MAP6 (souris KO MAP6) conduit à l'altération de nombreuse connections neuronales associé a différents troubles comportementaux réminiscent avec des symptômes schizoïdes. Parmi les faisceaux d'axones affectés on remarque la disparition du fornix, un faisceau neuronal connu pour son implication dans la schizophrénie. Cette disparition est en partie causée, en l'absence de MAP6, par l'abolition de la signalisation induite par la molécule de guidage sémaphorine 3E (Sema3E). Dans ce projet de thèse, le lien entre MAP6 et CRMP4 dans cette voie de signalisation Sema3E à pu être établi. De plus, l'impact de l'absence de la protéine CRMP4 sur la formation du fornix a pu être caractérisé par l'étude neuroanatomique des souris KO CRMP4. Nous avons par ailleurs pu mettre en évidence de nouvelles altérations causée par l'absence de MAP6. Dans son ensemble ce travail approfondit les connaissances des défauts des connectivités des souris KO MAP6 et identifie CRMP4 comme un nouvel acteur de la signalisation Sema3E et de la formation du fornix. / Study of the involvement of the MAP6 partners, CRMP4, in the semaphorin 3E signaling pathway.During embryonic development, neurons establish billion of connections between them. Those connections are not random. On the contrary, they are precisely targeted thanks to the driving by cellular environment guidance cues. A wrong branching of those neurons can lead to dramatic impairment of sensory, motor and cognitive function of the central nervous system resulting in neurologic or psychiatric disorders such as Schizophrenia. Thus, mutation of proteins implicated on neurons guidance like MAP6 or CRMP4 can lead to susceptibility for those kind of pathology occurrence. In fact, MAP6 deletion ( MAP6 KO mice) leads to diverse neuronal connectivity alterations associated to schizophrenia-like behavior disorders. Among axonal tracts affected we notice the absence of the fornix known for its implication on Schizophrenia. In MAP6 KO mice, this fornix disruption is partly due to the loss of semaphorin 3E (Sema3E) dependant signaling pathway. This project shows the involvement of CRMP4, a partner of MAP6, in the Sema3E signaling pathway. Furthermore, it characterized the impact of the CRMP4 deletion (CRMP4 KO) on fornix formation. Finally, neuroanatomical studies allowed us to identify unknown alteration of MAP6 KO mice connectivity alteration.

Le travail de cette thèse s’est articulé autour de l’étude de CRMP5 au cours du développement du système nerveux central. Nous avons mis en évidence une interaction directe entre CRMP5 et la tubuline, conduisant à une inhibition de la pousse neuritique dans différentes lignées cellulaires, ainsi qu’à une inhibition d’élongation uniquement au niveau des dendrites et non de l’axone, dans des cultures primaires de neurones de l’hippocampe. De plus, nous avons montré que CRMP5 pouvait annuler l’action de CRMP2, connue pour promouvoir la pousse neuritique, de façon dominante mais dépendante de la présence sur CRMP5 du site de fixation à la tubuline. Contrairement à CRMP2, l’expression de CRMP5 étant transitoire pendant la différentiation neuronale, elle permettrait de restreindre de façon spatio-temporelle l’effet de CRMP2 sur la pousse neuritique, régulant ainsi la polarité neuronale. D’autre part, nous avons également rapporté la présence de CRMP5 au niveau mitochondrial où elle pourrait jouer un rôle dans le processus d’autophagie des mitochondries. Enfin, nous nous sommes intéressés à l’étude de la CRMP5 exprimée en conditions pathologiques, et nous avons observé une nouvelle localisation nucléaire de la protéine dans certaines cellules cancéreuses. Etant localisée dans plusieurs compartiments subcellulaires et impliquée dans différents mécanismes moléculaires, l’ensemble de ce travail décrit donc la protéine CRMP5 comme une protéine « multi-fonctionnelle ». / The purpose of this work is to focus on the study of CRMP5 during development of the central nervous system. We have demonstrated a direct interaction between CRMP5 and tubulin, leading to inhibition of neurite outgrowth in different cell lines, and inhibition of growth only at dendritic but not axonal level, in hippocampal neurons. Furthermore, we showed that CRMP5 could counteract the previously described CRMP2 effect on neurite outgrowth. The CRMP5 acted as a dominant signal to counteract CRMP2 outgrowth promotion and this function is also dependent on the tubulin-binding capacity of CRMP5.Unlike CRMP2, the CRMP5 expression being transient during neuronal differentiation, it would imply in the spatiotemporal regulation of the CRMP2 effect on neurite outgrowth, thereby regulating neuronal polarity. In another part, we also reported the presence of CRMP5 at mitochondrial level in vivo where it could play a role in mitochondrial autophagic process.Finally, we were interested in the study of CRMP5 expressed in pathological conditions, and we discovered a new nuclear localization of the protein in some cancer cells. Being localizedin several subcellular compartments and involved in different molecular mechanisms, this work describes CRMP5 as a "multi-functional" protein.

Une des voies à l’étude permettant de réduire l’inventaire des déchets nucléaires, après recyclage du plutonium, est la transmutation hétérogène, en réacteurs à neutrons rapides, de l’américium (Am) en éléments chimiques à demi-vies courtes, voire stables. L’irradiation de l’Am nécessite la fabrication de pastilles d’U1-XAmXO2±δ. La voie CRMP (Calcined Resin Microsphere Pelletization) est actuellement privilégiée parmi les différents procédés envisagés. Elle se base, avant frittage, sur le pressage de microsphères d’oxyde mixte U1-XAmXO2±δ obtenues par conversion thermique de microsphères de résine échangeuse d’ions chargée en cations UO22+ et Am3+. Comparé à des voies de synthèse classique utilisant la métallurgie des poudres, le procédé CRMP permet de favoriser les étapes de mise en forme (forte coulabilité des microsphères) tout en limitant la dissémination de particules fines à base d’Am, hautement radioactives. Dans ce contexte, cette thèse s’attache à mener une caractérisation exhaustive des différentes étapes du procédé CRMP d’un point de vue mécanistique et structural. Ainsi, le mode de complexation des cations dans la résine a été déterminé, via la mise en évidence de groupements carboxyliques bidentés autour des éléments U et Am. L’étape de conversion thermique a également été suivie de manière in-situ, et les structures des différents composés oxydes formés, (U1-XAmX)3O8 et U1-XAmXO2±δ, ont été identifiées et caractérisées finement. La substitution de l’Am dans chacun des composés a été démontrée, ainsi que les déformations associées autour des cations. Finalement, le frittage des microsphères sous forme de pastilles d’U1-XAmXO2±δ a été caractérisé, révélant une densification en deux étapes. Ce comportement singulier est le résultat d’une réorganisation multi-échelle dans le matériau ayant lieu au cours du frittage, s’expliquant par la présence dans le cru de nanoparticules pré-frittant à basse température. / One of the studied routes to reduce nuclear waste amount, is, after plutonium recycling, americium (Am) heterogeneous transmutation in fast neutron reactors, through the generation of short-lives and inert elements. Am irradiation requires the fabrication of U1-xAmxO2±δ pellets and the CRMP (Calcined Resin Microsphere Pelletization) process is currently considered as one the most promising candidate among other fabrication routes. It is based, before pellet sintering, on the compaction of U1-XAmXO2±δ oxide microspheres, synthetized through the thermal conversion of ion exchange resin microspheres, loaded with UO22+ and Am3+ cations. Compared to standard methods using powder metallurgy, CRMP process favours pressing step (easy microsphere flow) while limiting generation of highly radioactive Am-based fine particles. In this context, this PhD work was focused on the exhaustive characterization of CRMP process different steps, from a mechanistic and structural point of view. The cation molecular complex used in the resin was thus determined, highlighting carboxylic bidendate ligand binding around U and Am elements. Thermal conversion was also in-situ followed, and the structures of the different synthetized compounds evidenced and accurately characterized, i.e. (U1-XAmX)3O8 et U1-XAmXO2±δ. Am substitution in each of them was explained, revealing related distortions around U and Am cations. Finally, sintering of U1-XAmXO2-δ microspheres shaped into pellets was studied, showing a two-step densification. This unusual behavior corresponds to multi-scale reorganization into the material during sintering thermal treatment, associated to the presence of nanoparticles in the green pellet that sinter at low temperature.

The mammalian genome encodes five collapsin response mediator protein (CRMP) isoforms. Cell culture studies have shown that the CRMPs mediate growth cone dynamics and neuron polarity through associations with a variety of signal transduction components and cytoskeletal elements. CRMP is also a member of a protein family including the presumably ancestral dihydropyrimidinase (DHP) protein that catalyzes the second step in pyrimidine degradation. In Drosophila, CRMP and DHP proteins are produced by alternatively spliced transcripts of the CRMP gene. The alternative protein forms have a 91% sequence identity, but unique expression patterns. CRMP is found exclusively in neuronal tissues and DHP is ubiquitously expressed in non-neuronal tissues. Comparative analysis of CRMP homologous sequences from insect taxa show CRMP alternative splicing is a common feature and probably represents the ancestral state of this gene family. To investigate the regulatory role of CRMP, loss-of-function mutations of CRMP that lack both proteins were isolated; homozygous animals display DHP-null phenotypes but exhibit no overt developmental or neurological defects. To determine possible interactions of Drosophila CRMP with signaling pathways in which mammalian CRMP has been shown to act, the UAS-GAL4 system was utilized. Phenotypes produced by misexpression of a variety of UAS signal transduction mediator responders were modified in a CRMP mutant background. The modification entails enhancement or suppression of a specific phenotype in a direction that corresponds to the hypothesized involvement of mammalian CRMP in signaling pathways that regulate growth cone dynamics. These data suggest that Drosophila CRMP has a role in cell signaling pathways similar to the role of the mammalian CRMPs. Furthermore, recent findings demonstrate that CRMP plays an important role in learning and memory of mice, leading to the assessment of new phenotypes in the Drosophila CRMP mutants. Tests utilizing the Pavlovian olfactory conditioning assay reveal that loss of CRMP function leads to significant learning, 3 hour memory, and long term memory deficits. Preliminary data also suggest that Drosophila CRMP may be required for normal circadian locomotor rhythms. Collectively, the data presented here demonstrate CRMP’s role in adult behavioral processes and regulating signaling events comparable to mammalian CRMP signaling.

Much effort of reservoir engineers is devoted to the time-consuming process of history matching in a simulator to understand the reservoir complexity. Its accuracy is debatable because only a few inputs are known. Several analytical tools have been developed to investigate reservoir heterogeneity. The reciprocal productivity index (RPI) is a tool to measure the pressure support observed at a producer. The log (water-oil ratio or WOR) plot can be used to indicate the presence of a channel. A capacitance-resistance model (CRM) is a simple tool to estimate the connectivity between a producer-injector pair from the production/injection and pressure data. Generally field operators implement an improved recovery plan such as water-alternating-gas (WAG) flood to improve displacement efficiency. However, the existence of heterogeneity compromises its performance. The first objective of this study is to improve the assessment of tertiary flood performance by integrating the CRM with other analytical tools. The integrated method was applied to a miscible flood field in West Texas. The results suggest strong interwell connectivity found more frequently in the NE-SW direction and the different preferential flow paths of injected CO2 and water. Overall, the results provide insights into the current flood status. The operating conditions of a producer dynamically change because of well/field constraints. These changes can induce significant interference in other wells, which cannot be captured by CRM. The second objective of this study is to develop a capacitance-resistance model with producer-producer interaction (CRMP-P). The CRMP-P, derived from the continuity and Darcy’s equations, accounts for producer-producer interactions. The CRMP-P was applied to data from three different reservoir models. The results suggest that the CRMP-P could fit the data with higher precision than CRM. Consequently, the CRMP-P estimates of reservoir properties are more accurate. Moreover, the estimated transmissibility between producers is in agreement with the reservoir models. The CRMP-P was also applied to Omani field data. The transmissibility results are consistent with previous study and the drilling information. The more accurate information on producer-producer interactions and reservoir properties can assist in history-matching, locating infill wells, and reservoir management planning. / text

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Synaptic transmission is coordinated by a litany of protein-protein interactions that rely on the proper localization and function of pre- and post-synaptic Ca2+ channels. The axonal guidance/specification collapsin response mediator protein-2 (CRMP-2) was identified as a potential partner of the pre-synaptic N-type voltage-gated Ca2+ channel (CaV2.2). CRMP-2 bound directly to CaV2.2 in two regions; the channel domain I-II intracellular loop and the distal C-terminus. Both proteins co-localized within presynaptic sites in hippocampal neurons. Overexpression in hippocampal neurons of a CRMP-2 protein fused to EGFP caused a significant increase in Ca2+ channel current density whereas lentivirus-mediated CRMP-2 knockdown abolished this effect. Cell surface biotinylation studies showed an increased number of CaV2.2 at the cell surface in CRMP-2–overexpressing neurons. Both activity- and CRMP-2-phosphoryation altered the interaction between CaV2.2 and CRMP-2. I identified a CRMP-2-derived peptide (called CBD3) that bound CaV2.2 and effectively disrupted the interaction between CaV2.2 and CRMP-2. CBD3 peptide fused to the HIV TAT protein (TAT-CBD3) decreased neuropeptide release from sensory neurons and excitatory synaptic transmission in dorsal horn neurons, and reversed neuropathic hypersensitivity produced by an antiretroviral drug. Unchecked Ca2+ influx via N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) has been linked to activation of neurotoxic cascades culminating in cell death (i.e. excitotoxicity). CRMP-2 was suggested to affect NMDAR trafficking and possibly involved in neuronal survival following excitotoxicity. Based upon these studies, I hypothesized that a peptide from CRMP2 could preserve neurons in the face of excitotoxic challenges. Lentiviral–mediated CRMP2 knockdown or treatment with TAT-CBD3 blocked neuronal death following glutamate exposure likely via blunting toxicity from NMDAR-mediated delayed calcium deregulation. TAT-CBD3 induced internalization of the NMDAR subunit NR2B in dendritic spines without altering somal surface expression. TAT-CBD3 reduced NMDA-mediated Ca2+-influx and currents in cultured neurons. The presented work validates CRMP-2 as a novel modulator of pre- and post-synaptic Ca2+ channels and provides evidence that the TAT-CBD3 peptide could be useful as a potential therapeutic for both chronic neuropathic pain and excitotoxicity following stroke or other neuronal insults.