La thèse porte sur l'étude d'un système de contrôle de la pression au sein de réservoirs d’ergols cryogéniques (dihydrogène ou dioxygène) dans le cadre de missions spatiales de longue durée. Ce système de contrôle doit permettre d’éviter la perte excessive d’ergols associée à un contrôle basique de la pression consistant en l’évacuation directe d’une fraction du fluide. Le système alternatif étudié, dit de contrôle thermodynamique, repose sur la réinjection d’un spray sous-refroidi permettant d’abaisser température et pression dans un réservoir soumis à une chauffe (en pratique, le rayonnement solaire). Nous avons analysé les performances de ce système en développant en parallèle un banc d'essai adapté aux conditions du laboratoire, et un modèle théorique de type 0D, à base de bilans globaux, de l’effet du spray sous-refroidi sur les caractéristiques thermodynamiques de l’enceinte. La confrontation des mesures et des calculs a permis de valider l’outil de modélisation théorique. Les caractéristiques du système réel (ensemble des circuits d'injection et de refroidissement) ont ensuite été introduites dans le modèle théorique afin de quantifier de façon réaliste les gains offerts par le système de contrôle thermodynamique, i.e. en prenant en compte la pénalité en masse associée à ces circuits. Des solutions optimales de contrôle de la pression au sein de réservoirs d’ergols cryogéniques lors de missions spatiales de longue durée ont pu alors être proposées. / This PHD thesis deals with the study of a pressure control system inside a cryogenic propellant tank for long duration space missions. This system must be able to reduce propellant losses induced by direct venting, which is the simplest pressure control system. The alternative system which has been studied, called Thermodynamic Vent System (TVS), is based on reinjecting subcooled spray to make the pressure and temperature decrease in a heated tank. The system performance has been analysed developing simultaneously an experimental setup, adapted to laboratory environment, and a theoretical 0D-modelling of subcooled spray impact on tank's thermodynamic characteristics. Facing experimental and theoretical results has permitted to validate the 0D-modelling tool. Inputing the real system characteristics in theoretical modelling has enabled to assess the effective gains of thermodynamic vent system. Finally, optimal solutions to control pressure inside a cryogenic propellant tank for long duration space missions have been proposed.

The work presented here pertains to investigations on gas-on-liquid type of impinging injectors with a generic approach with prospective applications in several areas, and at places with particular emphasis on cryogenic or semi-cryogenic liquid propellant rockets. In such rockets, one of the components arrives at the injector in a gaseous phase after passing through the regenerative coolant passages or a preceding combustion stage. Most often, the injectors in such systems are of shear coaxial type. The shear coaxial injectors suffer from several disadvantages like complexity in design, manufacture and quality control. Adoption of impinging jet configuration can alleviate these problems in addition to providing further benefits in terms of cost, robustness in high temperature environment and manifolding. However, there is very little literature on gas-on-liquid injectors either in this context or in any other Even for the simplest form of impinging injectors such as like-on-like doublets, literature provides no conclusive direction at describing a spray from the theoretical models of physical mechanisms. Empirical approach is still the prime mode of obtaining a proper understanding of the phenomena. Steady state spray characterization includes mainly of describing the spatial distribution of liquid mass and drop size distribution as a function of geometric and injection parameters. The parameters that are likely to have an impact on spray characteristics are orifice diameter, ratio of orifice length to diameter, pre-impingement length of individual jets, inter orifice distance, impingement angle, jet velocity and condition of the jet just before impingement. The gas-on- liquid configuration is likely to experience some qualitative changes because of the expansion of the gas jet. The degree to which each one of the above variables influences the drop size and mass distribution having implication to combustion performance forms the core theme of the thesis. A dedicated experimental facility has been built, calibrated and deployed exhaustively. While spray drop size measurement is done largely by a laser diffraction instrument, some of the cases warranted an image processing technique. Two different image processing algorithms are developed in-house for this purpose. The granulometric image processing method developed earlier in the group for cryogenic sprays is modified and its applicability to gas-on-liquid impinging sprays are verified. Another technique based on the Hough transform which is feature extraction technique for extracting quantitative information has also been developed and used for gas-on-liquid impinging injectors. A comparative study of conventional liquid-on-liquid doublet with gas-on-liquid impinging injectors are first made to establish the importance of studying gas-on-liquid impinging injectors. The study identifies the similarities and differences between the two types and highlights the features that make such injectors attractive as replacements to coaxial configuration. Spray structure, drop-size mass distributions are quantified for the purpose of comparison. This is followed by a parametric study of the gas-on-liquid impinging injectors carried out using identified control variables. Though momentum ratio appeared to be a suitable parameter to describe the spray at any given impingement angle, the variations due to impingement angle had to be factored in. It was found that normal gas momentum to liquid mass is an apt parameter to generalize the spray characteristics. It was also found that using identical nozzles for desired mass ratio could lead to rather large deflection of the spray which may not be acceptable in combustion chamber design. One way of overcoming this is to work with unequal orifice sizes for gas and liquid. It was found that using smaller gas orifice for a given liquid orifice resulted in lower SMD (Sauter Mean Diameter of the spray) for constant gas and liquid mass flow rates. This is attributable to the high dynamic pressure of gas in the case of smaller gas orifices for the same mass flow rate. The impinging liquid jets with unequal momentum in the doublet configuration would result in non-uniform mass and mixture ratio distribution within the combustion chamber which may have to operate under varying conditions of mass flow rates and/or mixture ratio. The symmetrical arrangement of triplet configuration can eliminate this problem at the same time generating finely atomized spray and a homogeneous mixture ratio. In view of the scanty literature available in this field, the atomization characteristics of the spray generated by liquid centered triplet jets are examined in detail. It was found that as in the case of gas-on-liquid impinging doublets, normal gas momentum to liquid mass is an ideal parameter in describing the spray. Variants of this configuration are studied recently for many other applications too. As done in the case of doublets, efforts have also been made to compare gas centered triplet to liquid-liquid triplet. It was found that the trend of SMD of gas centered triplet is different from that of liquid-liquid triplets, thus pointing to a different mechanism in play. The SMD in the case of liquid-liquid triplets decreases monotonically with increasing specific normal momentum. It is to be noted that specific normal momentum is an ideal parameter for describing the spray characteristics of liquid-liquid triplets and doublets. In the case of gas centered triplet the SMD first increases and then decreases with specific normal momentum, the inversion point depends on the gas mass flow rate for a constant specific normal momentum. The thesis concludes with a summary of the major observations of spray structures for all the above injector configurations and quantifies the parametric dependencies that would be of use to engineering design

L'expérience EDELWEISS-III est dédiée à la détection directe de matière noire sous forme de WIMPs. Ces particules massives devraient constituer plus de 80% de la masse de l'univers et être détectables via leur diffusion élastique sur un noyau de l'absorbeur d'un détecteur. Le taux d'événements WIMPs attendu étant très faible (<1/kg/an) , une méthode de double mesure chaleur/ionisation est réalisée afin de discriminer les reculs électroniques issus du fond et , des reculs nucléaires engendrés par les neutrons et WIMPs. Le travail de thèse a consisté en l'étude des signaux induits par le piégeage de charges. Un modèle analytique de son impact sur les signaux des voies ionisation et chaleur est présenté. Les prédictions du modèle, confortées par leur accord avec les données et une simulation numérique, ont donné lieu à diverses applications : amélioration des résolutions, sensibilité à la profondeur des dépôts d'énergie, caractérisation du piégeage de charges dans les cristaux. L'analyse des données du Run308 est détaillée et les résultats interprétés en terme de limite d'exclusion. Cette analyse a mis au jour la présence d'un bruit de fond neutron limitant pour la recherche de WIMPs de haute masse (>20GeV). La dernière partie est consacrée à une étude de l'optimisation des détecteurs cryogéniques aux WIMPs de basse masse. Ce travail, réalisée via un test statistique de rapport de vraisemblance profilé, a permis d'étudier l'influence des divers paramètres expérimentaux sur le potentiel d'exclusion. Les conclusions de cette analyse, conjointement aux résultats du Run308, ont mené l'expérience EDELWEISS à privilégier la recherche de WIMPs de basse masse (<20GeV) / The EDELWEISS-III experiment is dedicated to direct dark matter searches aiming at detecting WIMPS. These massive particles should account for more than 80% of the mass of the Universe and be detectable through their elastic scattering on nuclei constituting the absorber of a detector. As the expected WIMP event rate is extremely low (<1/kg/year), a double measurement heat/ionization is performed to discriminate electronic recoils originating from _ and backgrounds and nuclear recoils induced by neutrons and WIMPs. The first part of the thesis work consisted in studying the signals induced by charge carrier trapping. An analytical model of its impact on both ionization and heat signals is presented. The model predictions, through their agreement with both data and a numerical simulation, lead to various applications : improvement of the resolutions, statistical sensitivity to energy deposit depths, characterization of trapping within the crystals. The analysis of the Run308 data is detailed and its results are interpreted in terms of an exclusion limit on the WIMP-nucleon cross section (SI). This study brings to light the presence of a limiting neutron background for high mass WIMP searches (>20GeV). Finally, a study dedicated to the optimization of solid cryogenic detectors to low mass WIMP searches is presented. This study is performed on simulated data using a statistical test based on a profiled likelihood ratio that allows for statistical background subtraction and spectral shape discrimination. This study combined with results from Run308, has lead the EDELWEISS experiment to favor low mass WIMP searches (<20GeV)

L'organisation des substances humiques à l'échelle moléculaire reste une question largement débattue, et à ce jour, il n'a pas été possible de trancher entre une structure polymérique en pelotte plus ou moins flexible et un assemblage supramoléculaire de molecules hétérogènes associées par des liaisons hydrogènes et des interactions hydrophobes. Dans cette thèse, nous étudions la reconformation induite par l'addition de tensio-actifs cationiques (Chlorure de C n-trimethylammonium) sur une série de substances humiques (acides fulvique et humiques) ainsi que sur de la matière organique naturelle contenue dans des eaux noires. Des mesures de turbidité, de diffusion de lumière, mobilité électrophorétique, tension de surface, spectroscopie de fluorescence, diffusion des neutrons aux petits angles, et cryomicroscopie à transmission, permettent de decrire les complexes formés entre le tensio-actif et la matière humique. L'association matière humique/tensio-actif dépend à la fois d'interactions d'origine électrostatique et hydrophobe. Une série de structures moléculaires, vésicules, disques, globules, pseudo-micelles, est observée en cryomicroscopie selon la concentration en surfactant. La séquence obtenue est cohérente avec un système catanionique, en d'autres termes une partie de la matière humique est amphiphile et s'organise en assemblage supramoléculaire. L'addition de tensio-actif modifie également fortement le spectre de fluorescence de la matière humique, les nouvelles bandes bien résolues présentes sur le spectre indiquant une restructuration majeure de l'assemblage supramoléculaire. / The structural organization of humic nanocolloids remains a matter of harsh debate, and surprisingly, it is yet not possible to decide between an arrangement of the humic matter in the form of randomly coiled macromolecules more or less connected, and a supramolecular organization of small heterogeneous molecules linked by hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions. In this study, we investigate the reconformation induced by the addition of cationic surfactants (C n-trimethylammonium chloride) of varying alkyl chain length with a series of humic substances (HS) and Dissolved Organic matter (DOM) from two blackwater rivers of the Central Amazon. Turbidity measurements, Dynamic light scattering, electrophoretic mobility, surface tension, fluorescence spectroscopy, small angle neutron scattering and cryo-transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM), are combined to describe the Humic Substance/Surfactant complexes obtained. The association between the oppositely charged HS and cationic surfactant is driven by both electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions. A variety of molecular structures, unilamellar vesicles, disks, globules, spheroidal micelles, are visualized by cryo-TEM depending on surfactant concentration. Such sequence, consistent with those displayed by catanionic systems, provides an independent confirmation of both the amphiphilic nature of HS and of its supramolecular organization. In addition, the molecular rearrangement was investigated using single-scan fluorescence emission spectra spectroscopy, thus identifying the chemical groups responsible for the fluorescence properties in HS and DOM. The addition of cationic surfactant to HS/DOM unveils an unexpected fine structure of humic-like fluorescence through new emission peaks that are not evidenced in the references HS/DOM. An enhanced protein-like fluorescence indicating major restructuration and structural stacking/de-stacking is observed. All our results support a supramolecular organization of humic substances and DOM.

Au cours de cette thèse, un modèle LBM MPMC avec échanges thermiques est développé. Des tests d'assimilation de données et des mesures par flot optique sont réalisés en vue d'une validation. Le cadre d'application de cette thèse est celui du mélange d'un fluide cryogénique avec l'eau. Dans une première partie, un travail bibliographique rappelant l'équation de Boltzmann, ses diverses hypothèses et simplifications, ainsi que l'aspect algorithmique de la LBM sont exposés. Une comparaison entre opérateur de collision SRT et MRT est réalisée, et une simulation de phénomènes turbulents à différents nombres de Reynolds est étudiée, notamment avec le benchmark de l'instabilité de Von Karman. Dans une seconde partie, le modèle MPMC de Shan & Cehn est rappelé puis étendu au cas où les échanges thermiques entre composants sont présents. Des validations quantitatives sont faites, notamment avec le benchmark du fluide de Couette à deux phases ou à deux composants, du test de cohérence vis-à-vis de la loi de Laplace, ou encore par rapport à un benchmark faisant intervenir la conduction thermique. Des tests qualitatifs de condensation en milieu multicomposants sont proposés pour valider l'aspect des échanges thermiques entre composants en présence d'une transition de phase. Dans la troisième partie de cette thèse, une méthode de validation par assimilation de données est introduite, avec le filtrage de Kalman d'ensemble. Un test d'estimation d'état d'un fluide di-phasique est réalisé, et la compatibilité du filtrage de Kalman d'ensemble par rapport au modèle LBMMPMC est évaluée. Pour la validation du comportement du modèle d'un point de vue de la présence de deux composants, un fluide de substitution (non-cryogénique) au GNL, le butane, a été choisi pour permettre des observations dans des conditions expérimentales accessibles. Puis, une plateforme expérimentale d'injection de butane liquide dans une colonne d'eau sous pression est présentée. Des images d'ombroscopie issues d'expériences de remontée de butane liquide dans de l'eau sont exposées et un algorithme de calcul de flot optique est appliqué à ces images. Une évaluation qualitative des champs de vitesses obtenus par application de cet algorithme est réalisée. / In this thesis, a LBM MPMC model with heat exchange is developed. Data assimilation tests and optical flow measurements are made in order to validate the model. The application context of this thesis is the mixture of a cryogenic fluid with water. In the first part, a bibliographical work reminding the Boltzmann equation and its various assumptions and simplifications, as well as the algorithmic aspect of the LBM are exposed. A comparison between SRT and MRT collision operator is performed, and a simulation of turbulent phenomena at different Reynolds numbers is studied, especially with the benchmark of the instability from Von Karman. In the second part, the MPMC model from Shan & Chen is reminded and extended to the case of the inter-component heat exchanges. Quantitative validations are made, especially with the benchmark of a two-phase or two-component Couette fluid. Consistency is tested against Laplace's law rule, or against a benchmark involving heat conduction. Qualitative testing of condensations in a multi-component medium are proposed to validate the heat exchange between components in the presence of a phase transition. In the third part of this thesis, a validation method for data assimilation is introduced, with the ensemble Kalman filter. A state estimation test of a bi-phase fluid is realized, and compatibility of the ensemble Kalman filtering to the LBM MPMC model is assessed. For validation of the behavior of the model for a two-component case, a substitution fluid (non-cryogenic) for LNG, butane, was selected to permit observations in experimental conditions which are accessible. Then, an experimental platform of injection of liquid butane in a pressurised water column is presented. Shadowgraph images from liquid butane experiments in water are exposed and an optical flow calculation algorithm is applied to these images. A qualitative assessment of the velocity field obtaines by application of this algorithm is performed.

The subject of this doctoral thesis is the study of dielectric properties of a binary composite made up of a polymer matrix and metallic filler. Properties of such composites have been extensively examined in the past and they turned out to depend on temperature, frequency and in particular on filler concentration. The objective of this work was first to experimentally establish and second to describe quantitatively the effect of the size of metallic particles on the properties of the composite concerned, yet at the same filler concentration. This study was carried out on the model system ethylene-vinylacetate copolymer – nickel. The acquisition of experimental results required extensive measurements in a wide frequency and temperature interval, as well as a manufacture and preparation of a large set of samples with different concentrations and Ni filler sizes. Measurements were in part carried out at the Centre for Electronic Correlations and Magnetism, Institute of Experimental Physics V of the University of Augsburg (Germany) and, after the installation of a new cryogenic system, at the Department of Physics at FEEC, BUT Brno. Measurements were performed on a number of meters (Alpha-Analyzer of Novocontrol, HP4284A and HP4285A of Hewlett Packard and E4991A of Agilent) in the frequency range 1 Hz – 1 MHz and in the temperature interval 10 K – 300 K. The nickel concentration in systems studied varied from 0 % to 75 % and nickel particles were of a spherical shape with diameters between 35 and 115 m. The measurement results have shown that in the above frequency and temperature window just a single relaxation and a single conductivity mechanism occur. It was also proved that the frequency dependence of complex permittivity is for different Ni particle sizes at the same concentration different. These results have been quantified and a simple mathematical formula based on the Lichtenecker mixture rule has been proposed for their description. The physical origin of the effect of particle size at the same total nickel concentration is sought in different surface areas of internal interfaces between nickel and polymer in the composite

For performance optimisation of modern liquid cryogenic bipropellant rocket combustion chambers, one component which plays an important role in reducing the wall side heat flux, is the behaviour of the cooling film. At the Institute of Space Propulsion of the German Aerospace Center (DLR) in Lampoldshausen, hot test runs have been performed using the experimental combustion chamber BKM, to investigate the wall side heat flux which is -- among other factors -- dependent on cooling film properties. To gain more insight into the film behaviour under real rocket-like conditions, optical diagnostics have been applied. The chosen methods were shadowgraphy and OH* imaging producing optical data sets which are analysed in this study. In this context, a description of the necessary background information is given, concerning rocket combustion chambers, film cooling and optical diagnostics of O2/H2 combustion. The applied methodology for optical analysis is described, followed by a presentation of the results. During the test campaign, it became clear that the optical setup was not optimised for creating meaningful shadowgraphy recordings which is why the shadowgraphy data has to be treated as flame emission imaging. The behaviour of the gas layer adjacent to the chamber wall could be characterised based on qualitative (luminosity, LOx shadow, reflection, recirculation zone and flame shape) and quantitative (layer thickness, layer length, pressure conditions) analysis. The thickness could be identified for each load step and an average length of the layer was found as well. OH* imaging has been used supplementary to support the observations from the flame emission images. An in depth frame by frame analysis was not possible due to time constraints. However, the time averaged images yielded results in accordance to the flame emission and could give a relative figure for the temperature distribution in the combustion volume. An artefact in the data was found, stemming presumably from the image intensifier. This artefact needs to be researched for a future error reduction in the data of this and other campaigns. Additionally, the thickness of the layer suggested a correlation to the models for film cooling efficiency. Such a correlation could not be established. Nevertheless, the film cooling models show the same behaviour as the data obtained from the flame emission imaging. Finally, suggestions are given how the data analysis and the optical setup could be improved for future, similar campaigns.

Depuis plusieurs années, le département Temps-Fréquence de l’institut FEMTO-ST mène une étude sur le comportement des résonateurs à ondes acoustiques de volume à énergie piégée dans des cristaux à quartz à température cryogénique, typiquement proche de 4 K. Les performances en termes de coefficient de qualité mécanique relevé à ces températures, plusieurs milliards à quelques dizaines de MHz, font des cavités acoustiques en quartz de bons candidats pour des sources de fréquences cryogéniques ultrastables.Les travaux présentés dans ce manuscrit s’inscrivent dans la continuité de ce programme d’étude. Ils visent à consolider l’intérêt du quartz mais aussi à envisager des solutions alternatives à base de matériaux à très faibles pertes acoustiques mais non piézoélectriques pour lesquels l’excitation optique est une alternative crédible. Les présents travaux peuvent être résumés en trois parties majeures :- La première partie a été réalisée dans le but de déterminer une coupe de quartz possédant un point d’inversion sur sa caractéristique fréquence-température aux températures cryogéniques. La seule régulation de température du résonateur d’une source de fréquence ultrastable est en effet insuffisante sans l’existence d’un tel point qui doit servir de point de fonctionnement à la régulation thermique. La recherche d’une coupe compensée a nécessité une campagne préliminaire de mesure des coefficients de température des coefficients élastiques du matériau, inconnus à basses températures. Il a alors été possible, à partir de la connaissance de ces coefficients, d’identifier par le calcul puis de réaliser une coupe remplissant les conditions recherchées.- La seconde partie a pour objectif de faire la preuve de concept consistant à utiliser une cavité acoustique en quartz en cavité optique. Dans sa version de base, le résonateur à quartz à onde de volume piégée est plan-convexe (pour assurer le piégeage) et à électrodes (métalliques pour assurer l’excitation électrique !) déposées sur chacune de ses faces. Il est démontré, théoriquement et expérimentalement, qu’une telle géométrie fonctionne en cavité optique, avec son avantage de simplicité mais avec ses limites. Cette structure de base doit être mise à profit pour le couplage optomécanique abordé en troisième partie et constitue le socle de conception de dispositifs optomécaniques plus performants.- La troisième partie est consacrée à l’évaluation de la pertinence du couplage optomécanique de tels dispositifs fonctionnant à température cryogénique. Une étude portant sur la quantification théorique du couplage optomécanique que peut atteindre une telle cavité a été réalisée. / For a few years, the Time and Frequency department in FEMTO-ST Insitute has been leading research about the behavior of Bulk Acoustic Wave (BAW) trapped in quartz crystal at cryogenic temperatures (near 4K).The measured quality factor are around a few billions at few tens of MHz for such temperatures. Acoustical quartz cavities are therefore good candidates for ultrastable cryogenic frequency sources. The work presented here is in the natural continuation of the research cited above. They aim at strenghtening the interest for quartz crystal, but also to consider alternative solutions with non-piezoelectric material with very-low acoustical losses, for which optical excitation is an option. The following work can be summed up in three main parts:- The first part is about the determination of a quartz crystal cut for which a turnover point exists in the frequency-temperature curve in the cryogenic region. Indeed, it is not enough to barely control the temperature in an ultrastable frequency source. Such a turnover point needs to be the operation point for thermal regulation. Searching a compensated cut arose the need for a preliminary measurements campaign of thermal coefficients of elastics coefficients of the material, which were unknown at low temperature. It was then possible, based on these coefficients, to calculate and even realize a cut fulfilling the required condition.- The second part had the objective to demonstrate conceptually that using a quartz acoustical cavity as an optical cavity was feasible. In its basic scheme, a BAW quartz resonator is plano-convex (to ensure the trapping of the acoustic wave) and has electrodes (metal-made to ensure electrical excitation) deposited on each face. It has been demonstrated, both theoretically and experimentally, that such a geometry works fine as an optical cavity, with its corresponding advantages and limitations. This scheme is used for the optomechanical coupling discussed in the third part and constitutes the very base for more efficient optomechanical devices.- The third part is dedicated to the evaluation of how efficient will such devices be while functioning at cryogenic temperature. A theoretical quantification of the optomechanical coupling that these cavities might reach is also presented.

No description available.

<p>Proteins are significant components of living cells. They perform a diverse range of biological functions such as cell shape and metabolism. The functions of proteins are determined by their three-dimensional structures. Cryogenic-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) is a technology known for determining the structure of large macromolecular structures including protein complexes. When individual atomic protein structures are available, a critical task in structure modeling is fitting the individual structures into the cryo-EM density map.</p> <p>In my research, I report a new computational method, MarkovFit, which is a machine learning-based method that performs simultaneous rigid fitting of the atomic structures of individual proteins into cryo-EM maps of medium to low resolution to model the three-dimensional structure of protein complexes. MarkovFit uses Markov random field (MRF), which allows probabilistic evaluation of fitted models. MarkovFit starts by searching the conformational space using FFT for potential poses of protein structures, computes scores which quantify the goodness-of-fit between each individual protein and the cryo-EM map, and the interactions between the proteins. Afterwards, proteins and their interactions are represented using a MRF graph. MRF nodes use a belief propagation algorithm to exchange information, and the best conformations are then extracted and refined using two structural refinement methods. </p> <p>The performance of MarkovFit was tested on three datasets; a dataset of simulated cryo-EM maps at resolution 10 Å, a dataset of high-resolution experimentally-determined cryo-EM maps, and a dataset of experimentally-determined cryo-EM maps of medium to low resolution. In addition to that, the performance of MarkovFit was compared to two state-of-the-art methods on their datasets. Lastly, MarkovFit modeled the protein complexes from the individual protein atomic models generated by AlphaFold, an AI-based model developed by DeepMind for predicting the 3D structure of proteins from their amino acid sequences.</p>