Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Washington, 2001. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 113-137).

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Washington, 2001. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 118-135).

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a severe anxiety disorder characterised by hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA)-axis abnormalities, hyperarousal, anxiety, flashbacks of trauma memories and avoidance. Increasing evidence is now accumulating that the disorder is also associated with shrinkage of the hippocampus and cognitive dysfunction that may have its origin in stress-induced excitotoxicity. Animal studies have indeed highlighted a potential role of the excitotoxic glutamatenitric oxide (NO) pathway in the stress response. Since PTSD appears to be an illness that progresses and worsens over time after an initial severe traumatic event, this study has used an animal model that emphasises repeated trauma to investigate the effect of stress on hippocampal NO synthase (NOS) activity, the release of the nitrogen oxide metabolites of NO (NOx), and also the evoked release of cGMP. Furthermore, the modulation and dependency of these responses on glutamate, NO and cGMP activity using drugs selective for these targets, will also be investigated. Rats (n=10/group) were exposed to repeated stress together with saline or drug administration immediately after the stress procedure and continuing for one week post-stress. The animals were then sacrificed for assay of hippocampal NOS activity, NO, and cGMP accumulation. Animals received either the glutamate-NMDA receptor antagonist, memantine (MEM;5mg/kg ip/d), the neuronal NOS selective inhibitor, 7- nitroindazole monosodium salt (7-NINA;20mg/kg ip/d), the cGMP-specific PDE inhibitor, sildenafil (SIL;10mg/kg ip/d) or the NFkb antagonist, pyrollidine dithiocarbamate (PDTC;70mg/kg ip/d). The latter inhibits the nuclear transcription factor, NFkb, responsible for inducing the expression of iNOS, while it also appears to mediate the glutamatergic actions on NOS expression, Stress significantly increased hippocampal NOS activity, as well as significantly increased hippocampal cGMP and NO, levels. These increases were blocked by pretreatment with either PDTC or 7-NINA, while memantine was without effect. Sildenafil significantly augmented stress induced NO, accumulation, as well as cGMP. although the latter failed to reach significance. 7-NINA and memantine significantly blocked the increase in cGMP evoked by time-dependent sensitisation (TDS)-stress, with PDTC attenuating this response, but not significantly. Additionally, administration of each drug separately for seven days without exposure to stress, did not evoke significant changes in NOx levels, compared to the control group. However, significant increases in cGMP levels, compared to the control group, were found with all four drugs. Repeated trauma therefore activates the NO-cGMP pathway, possibly involving actions on both nNOS and iNOS. The NMDA receptor appears less involved after chronic repeated stress, and may have limited therapeutic implications. Sub-cellular NO-modulation, however, may represent an important therapeutic strategy in preventing the effects of severe stress and in treating PTSD. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmacology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2005.

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a severe anxiety disorder characterised by hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA)-axis abnormalities, hyperarousal, anxiety, flashbacks of trauma memories and avoidance. Increasing evidence is now accumulating that the disorder is also associated with shrinkage of the hippocampus and cognitive dysfunction that may have its origin in stress-induced excitotoxicity. Animal studies have indeed highlighted a potential role of the excitotoxic glutamatenitric oxide (NO) pathway in the stress response. Since PTSD appears to be an illness that progresses and worsens over time after an initial severe traumatic event, this study has used an animal model that emphasises repeated trauma to investigate the effect of stress on hippocampal NO synthase (NOS) activity, the release of the nitrogen oxide metabolites of NO (NOx), and also the evoked release of cGMP. Furthermore, the modulation and dependency of these responses on glutamate, NO and cGMP activity using drugs selective for these targets, will also be investigated. Rats (n=10/group) were exposed to repeated stress together with saline or drug administration immediately after the stress procedure and continuing for one week post-stress. The animals were then sacrificed for assay of hippocampal NOS activity, NO, and cGMP accumulation. Animals received either the glutamate-NMDA receptor antagonist, memantine (MEM;5mg/kg ip/d), the neuronal NOS selective inhibitor, 7- nitroindazole monosodium salt (7-NINA;20mg/kg ip/d), the cGMP-specific PDE inhibitor, sildenafil (SIL;10mg/kg ip/d) or the NFkb antagonist, pyrollidine dithiocarbamate (PDTC;70mg/kg ip/d). The latter inhibits the nuclear transcription factor, NFkb, responsible for inducing the expression of iNOS, while it also appears to mediate the glutamatergic actions on NOS expression, Stress significantly increased hippocampal NOS activity, as well as significantly increased hippocampal cGMP and NO, levels. These increases were blocked by pretreatment with either PDTC or 7-NINA, while memantine was without effect. Sildenafil significantly augmented stress induced NO, accumulation, as well as cGMP. although the latter failed to reach significance. 7-NINA and memantine significantly blocked the increase in cGMP evoked by time-dependent sensitisation (TDS)-stress, with PDTC attenuating this response, but not significantly. Additionally, administration of each drug separately for seven days without exposure to stress, did not evoke significant changes in NOx levels, compared to the control group. However, significant increases in cGMP levels, compared to the control group, were found with all four drugs. Repeated trauma therefore activates the NO-cGMP pathway, possibly involving actions on both nNOS and iNOS. The NMDA receptor appears less involved after chronic repeated stress, and may have limited therapeutic implications. Sub-cellular NO-modulation, however, may represent an important therapeutic strategy in preventing the effects of severe stress and in treating PTSD. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmacology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2005.

Diss. (sammanfattning) Linköping : Univ., 2001. / Härtill 4 uppsatser.

Orientador: Edson Antunes / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-21T23:29:22Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Monteiro_PriscilaFukumura_M.pdf: 903494 bytes, checksum: 9d17a9657d72fedec2f6efc40cc3b082 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013 / Resumo: As plaquetas desempenham uma função fisiológica importante no sistema hemostático, em resposta a lesão vascular através da prevenção da hemorragia. A adesão ou agregação plaquetária são eficazes na contribuição sinérgica de várias interações de múltiplos receptores, que transmitem sinais de ativação que iniciam uma série de respostas bioquímicas e morfológicas, associadas à remodelação do citoesqueleto, a secreção granular e a geração e liberação de agonistas endógenos solúveis, tais como ADP e tromboxano A2 (TXA2). O NO derivado da célula endotelial exerce um efeito inibitório na função da plaquetaria através da ativação de cGMP / PKG, a qual, por sua vez leva a uma redução na concentração de Ca2 + prevenindo assim a adesão e agregação de plaquetas à parede vascular. No entanto, a disfunção endotelial, presente em certas condições patológicas é caracterizada por uma diminuição da biodisponibilidade de NO que leva a ativação anormal das plaquetas conduzindo a trombose vascular À disfunção plaquetária é considerada uma fase final de complicações cardiovasculares no diabetes mellitus tipo II, obesidade, aterosclerose, levando ao resultado clínico, tais como enfarte do miocárdio, acidente vascular cerebral e doença arterial periférica. A obesidade é um importante problema de saúde pública, atingindo todas as idades e grupos socioeconômicos elevando a incidência de doenças cardiovasculares e endócrino-metabólica. Um estado crônico de stress oxidativo e inflamação são a marcados pela adiposidade que desempenha um papel crucial nos eventos fisiopatológicos desta desordem. Estes efeitos pró-inflamatórios e pró-oxidante estão associados com o aumento de ERO com diminuição da biodisponibilidade, o que aumenta o risco de eventos trombóticos aterosclerose. No entanto, os mecanismos pelos quais a adiposidade induz disfunção plaquetária são pouco esclarecidos. Além disso, a maioria dos eventos cardiovasculares fatais como consequência de complicação trombótica não estão associadas à estenose vascular completa, mas sim com as alterações de biomarcadores pró-inflamatórios e pró-oxidantes, o que pode prever futuros eventos cardiovasculares. Nossa hipótese é que a produção de ERO intraplaquetário causada pela adiposidade contribui para eventos trombóticos e distúrbios endocrinometabólico. Assim, investigou-se a reatividade plaquetária ex-vivo em resposta ao ADP e trombina, em ratos alimentados com dieta hiperlipídica, e o envolvimento de ERO e via do NO-cGMP na modulação da reatividade de plaquetária / Abstract: Platelets play an important physiological function in haemostasis system in response to vascular injury by preventing hemorrhage. Effective platelet adhesion and aggregation require the synergistic contribution of multiple receptor-ligand interactions that transmit activating signals initiating a range of platelet biochemical and morphological responses, linked to cytoskeleton remodeling, granule secretion and the generation and release of endogenous soluble agonists, such as ADP and thromboxane A2 (TXA2). Endothelial cell-derived nitric oxide (NO) exerts an inhibitory effect in the platelet function by activation of cGMP/PKG pathway, which in turn leads to reduction in concentration of Ca2+, thus preventing adhesion and aggregation of platelets to the vascular wall. Nonetheless, endothelium dysfunction, present in certain pathological conditions is characterized by a decreased NO bioavailability which incites abnormal platelet activation leading to vascular thrombosis. Platelet dysfunction is considered an end stage of cardiovascular complications in type II diabetes mellitus, obesity and atherosclerosis that results in clinical outcomes such as myocardial infarction, stroke and peripheral artery disease. Obesity is an important public health problem affecting all ages and socioeconomic groups greatly elevating the incidence of cardiovascular and endocrine-metabolic disorders. A chronic state of oxidative stress and inflammation are the hallmark of adiposity that plays a pivotal role in the physiopathological events in this disorder. These proinflammatory and pro-oxidant effects are associated with increased reactive-oxygen species (ROS) production and decreased NO bioavailability, which increases the risk of athero thrombotic events. Nonetheless, the exact mechanisms by which adiposity induces platelet dysfunction remain poorly investigated. In addition, most of fatal cardiovascular events as consequence of thrombotic complication are not associated with complete vascular stenosis, but rather with alterations of pro-inflammatory and pro-oxidant biomarkers, which can predict future cardiovascular events. We hypothesized that intraplatelet ROS production in adiposity contributes to thrombotic events in endocrinemetabolic disorders. Therefore, we have investigated the ex-vivo platelet reactivity in response to ADP and thrombin in high fat-fed rats, and the involvement of platelet-derived ROS and NO-cGMP pathway in modulating the platelet reactivity / Mestrado / Farmacologia / Mestra em Farmacologia

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior / Estudamos o efeito do citrato de sildenafil (ViagraÂ), vasodilatador largamente utilizado na terapÃutica da disfunÃÃo erÃtil, sobre o comportamento motor do trato gastrintestinal (TGI) de ratos Wistar. Para tanto, utilizamos 175 animais machos, pesando entre 200 a 350g, distribuÃdos nos quatro seguintes grupos de estudo: efeitos do citrato de sildenafil sobre o i) esvaziamento gÃstrico (EG) e os trÃnsitos gastrintestinal (GI) e ii) intestinal de lÃquido em ratos acordados; iii) a complacÃncia gÃstrica de ratos anestesiados e iv) a contratilidade de tiras isoladas do duodeno de ratos ex vivo. i) Avaliamos, em 64 ratos acordados sob jejum e livre acesso à Ãgua por 24h, o efeito da injeÃÃo (0,2mL; e.v.) de sildenafil (4mg/Kg) ou veÃculo (HCl 0,01N) sobre o EG e o trÃnsito GI de lÃquido, bem como sobre a pressÃo arterial (PA). Mediante gavagem, 1,5mL da refeiÃÃo-teste (vermelho de fenol - 0,5mg/mL em glicose a 5%) foi injetada no estÃmago. Depois de 10, 20 ou 30min, sacrificamos os animais e, apÃs laparotomia, obstruÃmos o piloro, o cÃrdia e o Ãleo terminal. Removemos e dividimos o TGI em: estÃmago e segmentos consecutivos do intestino delgado (40% iniciais; 30% mediais e 30% terminais). ApÃs o processamento destas porÃÃes viscerais, determinamos as absorbÃncias das amostras a 560nm. A retenÃÃo fracional de vermelho fenol em cada segmento permitiu o cÃlculo do EG e trÃnsito GI. Em um grupo separado de animais, a PA foi monitorada continuamente por meio de um sistema digital de aquisiÃÃo de dados durante 20min antes e 30min apÃs o tratamento com sildenafil ou diluente. Comparado ao grupo controle, houve aumento significativo da retenÃÃo gÃstrica (44,2Â2,0 vs 53,2Â2,1; 25,4Â1,3 vs 37,3Â1,6; 20,9Â2,5 vs 32,5Â2,9%) nos animais tratados com sildenafil e sacrificados aos 10, 20, ou 30min, respectivamente, bem como retarde significativo no trÃnsito GI. Embora o sildenafil tenha provocado hipotensÃo, a PA retoma nÃveis basais logo apÃs 10min. O prÃ-tratamento com omeprazol (bloqueador da secreÃÃo Ãcida estomacal) nÃo modificou o efeito do sildenafil sobre os valores de retenÃÃo gÃstrica e intestinal nem nos nÃveis de PA. ii) Noutros animais (n=44), sob jejum de 24h e dotados previamente (3d) de uma cÃnula crÃnica no bulbo duodenal, estudamos o efeito do sildenafil sobre a progressÃo ao longo do intestino delgado de uma refeiÃÃo teste (10MBq de TecnÃcio ligado a fitato e diluÃdo em 1mL de salina 0,9%). Decorridos 20, 30 ou 40min da injeÃÃo (0,2mL e.v.) de sildenafil (4mg/Kg) ou diluente (HCL 0,01N), sacrificamos os animais e, apÃs laparotomia e remoÃÃo do TGI, dividimo-o em: estÃmago, cinco segmentos congruentes e consecutivos de intestino delgado e o intestino grosso. A contagem da radiatividade foi determinada num colimador de gama-cÃmara. O sildenafil promoveu retarde (p<0,05) do TI, indicado pelos retardes dos centros geomÃtricos da refeiÃÃo de 2,8&#61617; 0,2 vs 3,3&#61617; 0,1; 3,0&#61617; 0,2 vs 3,7&#61617; 0,1 e 3,4&#61617; 0,1 vs 4,2&#61617; 0,2 em relaÃÃo ao grupo controle, aos 20, 30 ou 40min. iii) Os estudos de complacÃncia gÃstrica foram conduzidos em 39 ratos anestesiados, sob jejum de 24h. As variaÃÃes do volume gÃstrico (VG), foram medidas por pletismografia, enquanto a PA foi monitorada continuamente por um sistema digital de aquisiÃÃo de dados. Em relaÃÃo aos valores basais (2,91Â0,19mL) o sildenafil (3mg/Kg â e.v.) aumentou (p<0,05) o VG apÃs 10, 20 e 30min (3,08Â0,18; 3,10Â0,17 e 3,09Â0,17mL). A PA basal (105,8Â2,28mmHg) caiu significativamente com o sildenafil (59,8Â3,2; 64,8Â3,7 e 59,3Â4,6mmHg) enquanto o diluente (HCl 0,01N) nÃo modificou seja o VG ou a PA. O prÃ-tratamento mediante esplancnotomia ou injeÃÃo e.v. com azul de metileno (3mg/Kg-bloqueador da guanilato ciclase), L-NNA (3mg/Kg-bloqueador da NO sintetase) ou propranolol (2mg/Kg-Ã-bloqueador) preveniram o aumento do VG pelo sildenafil; jà o pÃs-tratamento com nitroprussiato de sÃdio (1mg/Kg - e.v.) o ampliou significativamente. iv) Avaliamos ainda o efeito do sildenafil sobre a contratilidade de tiras isoladas do duodeno de ratos ex vivo (n=28), sacrificados por deslocamento cervical. Tiras dissecadas do duodeno foram suspensas longitudinalmente em cuba de vidro (10mL), plena de soluÃÃo de Tyrode (37oC e pH 7,4), e submetidas a uma tensÃo inicial de 1g. ApÃs 1h de estabilizaÃÃo, a contratilidade espontÃnea ou induzida das tiras foi registrada continuamente por um sistema digital de aquisiÃÃo de dados. O sildenafil em doses crescentes e cumulativas (0,1 a 300Âmol/L) relaxou (EC50 de 9,6Âmol/L) o duodeno, mais atà que o zaprinaste ou a papaverina (bloqueadores de FDEs) (EC50 91,6 e 78,5Âmol/L, nesta ordem). Observamos ademais que o sildenafil inibiu as contraÃÃes induzidas por acetilcolina ou carbacol (IC50 26,7 e 16,2Âmol/L, respectivamente). Jà o prÃ-tratamento com azul de metileno, ODQ (bloqueador da guanilato ciclase) ou L-NAME (bloquedor da NO sintetase), mas nÃo o D-NAME (isÃmero inativo da NO sintetase) preveniram o efeito do sildenafil. O efeito mio-relaxante do sildenafil foi ampliado pela L-arginina (substrato do NO sintetase) ou nitroprussiato de sÃdio (doador de NO). O prÃ-tratamento com forskolina (estimulador da adenilato ciclase) tambÃm aumentou o efeito mio-relaxante do sildenafil. Em resumo, observamos que o sildenafil diminui a motilidade gastrintestinal, retardando o EG, os trÃnsitos GI e intestinal de lÃquido em ratos acordados; aumenta a complacÃncia gÃstrica em ratos anestesiados alÃm de apresentar efeitos antiespasmÃdico e mio-relaxante sobre tiras isoladas de duodeno de ratos ex vivo; por estimulaÃÃo do sistema nervoso simpÃtico e tendo como provÃvel mecanismo de aÃÃo ao nÃvel do miÃcito gastrintestinal a via do NO/GMP cÃclico. / We evaluated the effect of sildenafil citrate (ViagraÂ) a vasodilator largely used for the treatment of male erectile dysfunction, on the gastrointestinal motility in rats. Experiments were performed on 175 male, Wistar rats, weighing 200-350g. Four groups of study were done: the sildenafil effects on the: i) Gastric emptying (GE) and gastrointestinal (GI) transit and ii) Intestinal transit (IT) of liquid in awake rats; iii) Gastric compliance in anesthetized rats and iv) Contractility of rat duodenal isolated strips. i) In 64 rats fasted for 24h with previous vascular access (right jugular vein and left carotid artery), we studied the effect of an i.v. injection (0.2mL) of sildenafil (4mg/Kg) or vehicle (0.01N HCl) on GE and GI transit of a liquid meal, as well as on arterial pressure (AP) in a separated group of rats. Animals were gavage-fed with 1.5mL of a test meal (0.5mg/mL of phenol red in 5% glucose). After 10, 20 or 30min, animals were sacrificed and submitted to a laparotomy to obstruct the pylorus, cardia and terminal ileus. The gut was removed and then divided into: stomach and consecutive three small intestine segments (40% proximal; 30% medial and 30% terminal). After processing these segments, the dye retention was determined at 560nm. The percentage of dye retention in each segment permitted to evaluate GE and GI transit. Arterial pressure was continuously monitored by a digital acquisition system during 20min before and 30min after sildenafil injection. We observed a significant increase of gastric retention in sildenafil treated rats at 10, 20, or 30min after the test meal (44,2Â2,0 vs 53,2Â2,1; 25,4Â1,3 vs 37,3Â1,6; 20,9Â2,5 vs 32,5Â2,9%, respectively), as well as a significant GI transit delay. Despite of sildenafil inducing hypotension, AP returned to basal levels 10min afterwards. Acid gastic secretion blocking pre-treatment with omeprazol did not modify the sildenafil effect on gastric retention, GI transit or AP. ii) In another group we evaluated the sildenafil (4mg/Kg) or diluente (0.01N HCl, 0.2mL) effects on the IT in awake rats, fasted for 24h. Animals were studied 3d after the insertion of a silastic cannula (0.6cm ID) into the duodenal bulb. We evaluated the progression of a radioactive liquid test meal fed (10MBq of 99mTc â 1mL of saline 0,9%) administered through the inserted cannula into the small intestine. After 20, 30 or 40min, animals were sacrificed by anesthetic overdose. After laparotomy, we removed and divided the gut in: stomach, five congruent and consecutive segments of the small intestine and the large intestine. Radioactivity counting was obtained in a gamma-chamber collimator. Sildenafil promoted an IT delay (p<0.05), indicated by shifting the center of mass to the proximal portions of the TGI (2.8Â0.2 vs 3.3Â0.1; 3.0Â0.2 vs 3.7Â0.1 and 3.4Â0.1 vs 4.2Â0.2) in relation to control group. iii) Gastric compliance study was performed on 39 anesthetized rats after 24h of fasting. Gastric volume (GV) variations were measured by plethysmography while AP was continuously monitored. We have also observed that GV increased (p<0.05) after sildenafil treatment (3mg/Kg - e.v) (3.08Â0.18; 3.10Â0.17 and 3.09Â0.17mL vs 2.91Â0.19mL) at 10, 20 and 30min after drug administation, respectively. Basal AP (105.8Â2.28mmHg) dropped by the sildenafil injection (59.8Â3.2; 64.8Â3.7 and 59.3Â4.6mmHg-p<0.05) while vehicule (0.01N HCl) did not change either GV or AP. After splanchnotomy or pre-treatments (e.v.) with methylene blue (3mg/Kg-guanilate cyclase blocker), L-NNA (3mg/Kg - NO synthase blocker) or propranolol (2mg/Kg - Ã-blocker) prevented GV increase due to sildenafil; while post-treatment with sodium nitroprusside (1mg/Kg - NO donor) raised it. iv) The in vitro contractility studies were performed on isolated duodenal strips obtained from rats (n=28) killed by cervical dislocation. Duodenal strips were suspended longitudinally in a glass chamber (10mL), filled with Tyrode solution (37oC and pH 7.4). After 1h of stabilization under 1g of initial tension, the spontaneous or induced contractility were continuously recorded by a digital acquisition system. Increasing and cummulative doses of sildenafil (0.1 to 300Âmol/L) relaxed (9.6Âmol/L of EC50) the duodenal strips. This effect was more intense than those displayed by zaprinast or papaverine (PDEs blockers) (91.6 and 78.5Âmol/L of EC50, in this order). Sildenafil showed significant antispasmodic and myorelaxant effects on the duodenal contractions induced by acetylcholine or carbamylcholine (IC50 26.7 and 16.2Âmol/L, respectively). Pre-treatment with methylene blue, ODQ (guanilato cyclase blocker) or L-NAME (NO synthase blocker) also prevented these sildenafil effects, but D-NAME (an inactive substrate for NO synthase) did not. Myorelaxant sildenafil effect was reverted by L-arginine (substrate for NO synthase) and contrarily it was largely increased by sodium nitroprusside. Forskolin adenylate cyclase activation pre-treatment also increased the myorelaxant effect of sildenafil. In summary, we have observed that sildenafil slowed down the gastrointestinal motility, delaying GE, GI and intestinal transits of a liquid meal in awake rats; Gastric compliance was also increased in anesthetized rats treated with sildenafil. Sildenafil also exhibited both antispasmodic and myorelaxant effects on isolated strips of duodenum of ex vivo rats. Besides central or peripheral sympathetic nervous system activation, sildenafil possibly acts at the gastrointestinal myocite level by activating the NO/GMPc system.

Orientador: Gilberto de Nucci / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-26T11:10:20Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Arruda_AndreMoreiraMartins_M.pdf: 11172054 bytes, checksum: db7fb87cc200cb091d3be4733e8d8af5 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013 / Resumo: A presença de um par de órgãos copuladores, os hemipênis, é a característica mais singular do grupo Squamata, que reúne as serpentes e os lagartos. Para que ocorra a ereção, o hemipênis sofre ingurgitamento dos corpos cavernosos por sangue e linfa, além de contar com o auxílio da contração do músculo propulsor do pênis e o relaxamento do músculo retrator. O coito nestes animais pode durar até 28 horas, porém, os mecanismos envolvidos, as estruturas e sua base farmacológica de funcionamento são ainda pouco conhecidas. O hemipênis consiste de dois corpos cavernosos funcionalmente concêntricos, um deles contendo feixes de fibras musculares lisas. Em mamíferos, sintases de NO neuronais e endoteliais estão presentes em estruturas neurais e no endotélio, respectivamente, enquanto a guanilato ciclase solúvel e PDE5 (fosfodiesterase tipo 5) estão expressas no músculo liso trabecular. Partindo disto, para investigar as vias presentes no tecido das cobras, foram construídas curvas concentração-resposta cumulativas de relaxamento para a acetilcolina (ACh), nitroprussiato de sódio (SNP), BAY41-2272 e tadalafil em corpos cavernosos de Crotalus (CCC) pré-contraídos com fenilefrina. Relaxamentos induzidos por estímulo elétrico (EFS) também foram feitos na ausência e presença de L-NAME (100 mm), ODQ (10 mM) e tetrodotoxina (TTX, 1 mM). Em CCC pré-contraídos, o relaxamento dependente de frequência, gerado por EFS, durou três vezes mais do que aqueles em CC mamíferos. Embora estes relaxamentos sejam praticamente abolidos por L-NAME ou ODQ, eles não foram afetados pela TTX. Em contraste, o EFS promoveu relaxamento em corpos cavernosos de sagui que haviam sido incubados com TTX / Abstract: The presence of a pair of copulatory organs, the hemipenes, is the most unique feature of the group Squamata, which includes snakes and lizards. For an erection to occur, the hemipenes suffer engorgement of the corpora cavernosa with blood and lymph, besides counting with the aid of contraction of the propellant muscle and relaxation of penis retractor muscle. Coitus in these animals can last up to 28 hours, however, the mechanisms involved, the structures and their pharmacological basis are still little known. The hemipenis consists of two concentric functionally cavernous bodies, one containing bundles of smooth muscle fibers. In mammals, neuronal NO synthases and endothelial cells are present in the endothelium and neuronal structures, respectively, whereas the soluble guanylate cyclase and PDE5 (phosphodiesterase type 5) are expressed in trabecular smooth muscle. To investigas the tissue were constructed cumulative concentration-response curves for relaxation to acetylcholine (Ach), sodium nitroprusside (SNP), BAY41-2272 and tadalafil in the corpora cavernosa of Crotalus (CCC) pre contracted with phenylephrine. Relaxations induced by electrical stimulation (EFS) was also tested in the presence and absence of L-NAME (100 mm), ODQ (10 mM) and tetrodotoxin (TTX, 1 mM). In precontracted CCC, dependent relaxation frequency generated by EFS last three-times more than those in DC mammals. Although these relaxations are virtually abolished by L-NAME or ODQ, they were not affected by TTX. In contrast, EFS caused a relaxation of the corpus cavernosum in marmosets that had been incubated with TTX / Mestrado / Farmacologia / Mestra em Farmacologia

Orientador: Carlos Amilcar Parada / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Biologia / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-26T11:05:11Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 DosSantos_GilsonGoncalves_M.pdf: 2757194 bytes, checksum: 3b5bda3ca0fc7912d13b42ba51399734 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014 / Resumo: A dipirona (metamizol) é um pró-fármaco analgésico utilizado no controle da dor moderada, sendo metabolizada em dois metabolitos bioativos: 4-metil-aminoantipirina (4-MAA) e 4-aminoantipirina (4-AA). O objetivo deste estudo foi investigar a participação de receptores canabinóides periféricos, CB1, CB2 e canais de KATP sobre o efeito anti-hiperalgésico da dipirona, 4-MAA ou 4- AA. Para indução de hiperalgesia, PGE2 (100 ng/pata ) foi administrada localmente na pata traseira de ratos Wistar machos, e o limiar hiperalgésico mecânico foi quantificado por Von- Frey eletrônico, antes e três horas após a injeção. Dipirona, 4-MAA ou 4-AA foram administrados 30 minutos antes do Von Frey. Os antagonistas seletivos do receptor CB1 (AM251), CB2 (AM630) e glibenclamida, um bloqueador KATP (80 ug) ou ODQ um inibidor de cGMP (32 ?g) foram administrados 30 minutos antes da Dipirona, 4-MAA ou 4 -AA. O ODN-antisense para reduzir a expressão do receptor CB1 (30 ?g) foi administrado por via intratecal, uma vez por dia durante quatro dias consecutivos. A hiperalgesia mecânica induzida pela PGE2 foi reduzida pela dipirona, 4-MAA, e 4-AA de maneira dose-dependente. AM251 ou ODN-antisense contra o receptor neuronal CB1, mas não AM630, reduziu o efeito anti-hiperalgésico mediado por 4-AA, mas não da dipirona ou 4-MAA. Por outro lado, o efeito anti-hiperalgésico da dipirona, ou 4-MAA foi revertido por glibenclamida ou ODQ. Os resultados sugerem que a ativação de receptores neuronal CB1, mas não do receptor CB2, no tecido periférico esteja envolvido no efeito anti-hiperalgésico do metabólito 4-AA. Além disso, a dipirona e 4-MAA possui um efeito anti-hiperalgesico dependente de cGMP e consequente abertura KATP / Abstract: Dipyrone (metamizole) is an analgesic pro-drug used to control moderate pain. It is metabolized in two bioactive metabolites: 4-methylaminoantipyrine (4-MAA) and 4-aminoantipyrine (4-AA). The aim of this study was to investigate the participation of peripheral CB1 and CB2 cannabinoid receptors activation on the anti-hyperalgesic effect of Dypirone, 4-MAA or 4-AA. For induction of hyperalgesia, PGE2 (100 ng) was locally administrated in hindpaw of male Wistar rats, and the mechanical nociceptive threshold was quantified by electronic von-Frey, before and 3 hours after its injection. Dypirone, 4-MAA or 4-AA was administrated 30 minutes before the von-Frey test. The selective CB1 receptor antagonist AM251, CB2 receptor antagonist AM630, cGMP inhibitor ODQ (32 ?g) or KATP blocker glibenclamide (80 ?g) was administrated 30 minutes before Dypirone, 4-MAA or 4-AA. The antisense-ODN against CB1 receptor expression (30 ?g) was intrathecally administrated once a day during four consecutive days. PGE2-induced mechanical hyperalgesia was inhibited by dypirone, 4-MAA, and 4-AA in a dose-response manner. AM251 or ODN anti-sense against neuronal CB1 receptor, but not AM630, reversed the antihyperalgesic effect mediated by 4-AA, but not by dypirone or 4-MAA. On the other hand, the anti-hyperalgesic effect of dypirone or 4-MAA was reversed by Glibenclamide or ODQ. These results suggest that the activation of neuronal CB1, but not CB2 receptor, in the peripheral tissue is involved in the anti-hyperalgesic effect of 4-aminoantipyrine. In addition, 4- methylaminontipyrine mediates anti-hyperalgesic effect by the cGMP activation and the KATP opening / Mestrado / Fisiologia / Mestre em Biologia Funcional e Molecular

Hintergrund: Die Herzinsuffizienz ist ein internistisches Krankheitsbild, welches weltweit eines der höchsten Morbiditäten und Mortalitäten aufweist. Trotz etablierter Behandlungsmethoden sterben mehr als die Hälfte der Patienten innerhalb der ersten fünf Jahren nach Diagnosestellung. Zur pharmakologischen Therapie gehören in erster Linie die Betablocker, welche durch kompetitive Hemmung am β- Adrenorezeptor die β- Signalkaskade und somit die sympathische Wirkung am Herzen reduzieren. Gleichzeitig wird durch die Hemmung die Anzahl an β- Adrenorezeptoren erhöht, wodurch die Rezeptorsensitivität insgesamt herabgesetzt wird. Zudem verhindern sie ein Remodeling der Ventrikel, führen zu einer verbesserten myokardialen Energie- und Calciumnutzung, sowie zu einer Reduzierung von kardialen Arrhythmien. Aufgrund ihres Nebenwirkungsspektrums - Hypotonie, Bradykardie und erektile Dysfunktion - tolerieren nur wenige Patienten eine wirksame Dosis des Medikamentes. Fragestellung: Die Phosphodiesterasen stellen einen von mehreren Regulatoren der β-Signalkaskade dar, indem sie deren Second Messenger cAMP hydrolysieren und die Sympathikusaktivierung drosseln. In vorangegangenen Studien im Menschen ist die PDE2 bei einer Herzinsuffizienz hochreguliert. Gleichzeitig bildet die PDE2 eine Verbindung zum NO – sGC – cGMP – Signalweg, da sie als einzige PDE von cGMP allosterisch aktiviert werden kann und infolgedessen vermehrt cAMP hydrolysiert. PDE2 ist ein entscheidendes Enzym im negativen cross talk von der cAMP und cGMP Signalkaskade. Diese Arbeit untersucht die Funktion der PDE2 in der chronischen Herzinsuffizienz. Inwieweit zeigen sich vermehrt Rhythmusstörungen bei einem Mausgenotyp, dessen PDE2 überexprimiert vorliegt, im Gegensatz zum Wildtyp? Wie reagiert die transgene Maus auf adrenergen Stress? Und abschließend, schützt eine überexprimierte PDE2 vor einer Angiotensin II- induzierten kardialen Hypertrophie? Methoden: Nach Genotypisierung der Mäuse mit Hilfe von PCR Testung der Schwanzspitzen konnte mittels transthorakaler Echokardiographie die Morphologie des Herzens (Durchmesser der Ventrikelwand und des Ventrikels selbst) festgestellt und somit die Herzleistung (Ejektionsfraktion, systolisches und diastolisches Volumen) und das Herzgewicht errechnet werden. Zur dauerhaften Ableitung der Herzaktivität wurden den Mäusen (n = 7) pectoral telemetrische Transmitter implantiert, um die Herzfrequenzvariabilität und Arrhythmien (Salven, Extrasystolen, ventrikuläre Tachykardien) abzuleiten. Zur Arrhythmieprovokation wurde den Mäusen (n = 4) Ivabradin und Isoproterenol intraperitoneal verabreicht. Zur Provokation einer Kardiohypertrophie erhielten die Wildtyp (WT, n = 9) und transgenen Mäuse (TG, n = 10) mittels einer im zerviko-thorakalen Rückenbereich implantierten osmotischen Minipumpe für 14 bzw. 28 Tage Angiotensin II. Die Herzparameter zur Messung einer Hypertrophie wurden mittels transthorakaler Echokardiographie alle 7 Tage für maximal 28 Tage erfasst. Zudem wurden die Herzgewichte nach Tötung der Mäuse mittels vorausgehender Isoflurannarkose und anschließendem Genickbruch durch sofortiges Wiegen der Organe erlangt. Verglichen wurden die Ergebnisse der für 14 und der für 28 Tage dem Angiotensin II ausgesetzten Tieren. Post mortem wurden die Herzen der Mäuse nach Trennung der Ventrikel von den Vorhöfen kryokonserviert und das Ventrikelgewebe zur proteinchemischen Analyse mechanisch aufgeschlossen. Der zentrifugierte Überstand wurde für die Proteinbestimmung nach Bradford zur Erlangung der Proteinkonzentration verwendet. Im Anschluss erfolgte zur Größenselektion der Proteine eine Gelelektrophorese mit anschließendem Western Blotting zum Nachweis der Proteine. Zur Auswertung und Vergleichbarkeit der Ergebnisse wurden die Proteinlevel auf das Kardiomyozyten-spezifische Calsequestrin normiert. Ergebnisse: Bei überexprimierter PDE2 bestand eine grundsätzlich niedrigere Herzfrequenz mit erhaltender chronotroper Adaptionsfähigkeit und kompensatorisch erhöhter Kontraktilität. Zudem war bei den TG- Mäuse die Herzfrequenzvariabilität höher als bei den WT. Es zeigte sich kein Anhalt für eine Beeinflussung des HCN-Kanals durch die erhöhte PDE2. Bei vermehrter Stimulation der β-adrenergen Rezeptoren bestand kein signifikanter Unterschied in der Zunahme der Herzfrequenz, jedoch präsentierten sich deutlich weniger ventrikuläre Extrasystolen und Arrhythmien bei den TG- Mäusen als bei den WT- Mäusen. Bei den durch stete Ang. II-Applikation hypertrophierten Herzen stellte sich über die Zeit eine Zunahme der Herzfrequenz bei sowohl den WT- als auch den TG- Mäusen dar, bei gleichzeitig aufrecht erhaltener linksventrikulärer Funktion. Es zeigte sich ebenfalls bei beiden eine noch bestehende β-adrenerge Rezeptorsensibilität, vor allem bezüglich der Ejektionsfraktion. Von PKA- bzw. CaMKII-abhängige Zielproteine wiesen bei beiden Phänotypen keine vermehrte Phosphorylierung auf. Schlussfolgerung: Zusammenfassend konnte in dieser Arbeit gezeigt werden, dass die PDE2 als Cross Link zwischen der cGMP- und der cAMP-Signalkaskade bei Überexpression ähnlich wie ein Betablocker die Herzfrequenz reduziert ohne die Herzleistung zu beinträchtigen. Sie schützte vor Arrhythmien und zeigte bei einer Kardiohypertrophie dennoch eine bestehende β-adrenerge Rezeptorsensibilität. Ein Schutz vor einer kardialen Hypertrophie bei den PDE2- überexprimierten Mäusen konnte in dieser Arbeit nicht nachgewiesen werden. Klinische Daten zeigen eine Hochregulation der PDE2 bei herzinsuffizienten Patienten. Ob eine Überstimulation der PDE2 in vivo und somit eine Zunahme der cAMP- Hydrolyse tatsächlich kardioprotektiv in der terminalen Herzinsuffizienz ist - oder sogar davor - bedarf noch weiterer Forschung.:Inhaltsverzeichnis I Abbildungsverzeichnis III Tabellenverzeichnis V Abkürzungsverzeichnis VI 1 Einleitung 1 1.1 Herzinsuffizienz 1 1.1.1 Epidemiologie 1 1.1.2 Ätiologie 2 1.1.3 Pathophysiologie 3 1.2 Behandlung der Herzinsuffizienz 4 1.2.1 Medikamentöse Behandlung 5 1.2.1.1 ACE-Hemmer und AT1-Antagonisten 5 1.2.1.2 Betablocker 5 1.2.1.3 Ivabradin 6 1.3 Wirkungen des vegetativen Nervensystems am Herzen 7 1.3.1 Physiologie der kardialen β-adrenergen Signalkaskade 7 1.3.2 Kompartimentierung in Kardiomyozyten 8 1.4 Physiologie der Phosphodiesterasen 9 1.4.1 Cyclisches Guanosinmonophosphat 9 1.4.2 Die Subtypen der Phosphodiesterasen 10 1.4.3 Die Interaktion von cGMP und cAMP 14 1.4.4 Die PDE2 in der Herzinsuffizienz 16 1.5 Vordaten 17 1.5.1 Überexpression von PDE2 im Mausmodell 17 1.6 Ziele dieser Arbeit 18 2 Material und Methoden 20 2.1 Herkunft und Gewinnung der Wildtyp- und transgenen Mäuse 20 2.1.1 Tierhaltung und Tötung 20 2.1.2 Genotypisierung der Mäuse 20 2.2 Echokardiographie zur Messung der kardiologischen Parameter 21 2.3 Einbau der telemetrischen Transmitter 24 2.4 Aufzeichnung des EKG 25 2.5 Einbau der osmotischen Minipumpen 25 2.6 Herzentnahme bei Mäusen 26 2.7 Proteinchemische Methode 26 2.7.1 Aufschluss des Herzgewebes zur proteinchemischen Analyse 26 2.7.2 Proteinbestimmung nach Bradford 27 2.7.3 SDS-PAGE 28 2.7.4 Transfer der Proteine auf Membranen (Westernblot) 29 2.7.5 Auftragen der Antikörper auf die Membranen 30 2.7.6 Aufnahmen 32 2.8 Statistische Auswertungen 32 3 Ergebnisse 33 3.1 Charakterisierung der Herzfunktion bei PDE2-Überexpression mittels EKG 33 3.1.1 Zirkadiane Messung der Herzfrequenz und Aktivität 33 3.1.2 Herzfrequenzvariabilität 35 3.1.3 Autonome Herzfunktion unter Ivabradin 36 3.1.4 Arrhythmieprovokation mit Isoproterenol 37 3.2 Die Rolle von PDE2 im Angiotensin II- induzierten kardialen Remodeling 41 3.2.1 Grundcharakterisierung der Herzfunktion bei niedriger PDE2- Überexpression mittels Echokardiographie 41 3.2.2 Auswirkung erhöhter PDE2-Spiegel nach chronischer Angiotensin II Applikation 43 3.3 Auswertung der Western Blots der PDE2A3-4808 Mäuse 49 4 Diskussion 54 4.1 Phosphodiesterase 2 reguliert die Herzfrequenz 54 4.2 Phosphodiesterase 2 schützt vor ventrikulären Arrhythmien 55 4.3 Phosphodiesterase 2 im kardialen Remodeling 56 4.4 Limitation der Überexpression durch zelluläre Kompartimentierung 58 4.5 Diskussion der Methodik und Bewertung der Ergebnisse 58 4.6 Ausblick: PDE2 als Downstream Target für Beta-Adrenorezeptor-Blockade? 59 5 Zusammenfassung/ Summary 61 5.1 Zusammenfassung 61 5.2 Summary 63 6 Anhang 66 6.1 Puffer 70 7 Literaturverzeichnis 72 / Background: Congestive heart failure is a medical condition, which has one of the highest morbidity and mortality rates worldwide. Despite having established treatments, more than half of the patients die within the five years after diagnosis. First-line pharmacological therapy includes beta-blockers. By competitive inhibition at the β-adrenoreceptor, they reduce the β-signal cascade and thus the sympathetic effect on the heart. Simultaneously, this inhibition increases the number of β-adrenoreceptors, which then reduces the sensitivity of the receptors. Additionally, beta-blockers prevent remodeling of the ventricles, lead to improved myocardial energy and calcium utilization, and reduce the risk of cardiac arrhythmias. Due to its side effects – such as hypotension, bradycardia, and erectile dysfunction – only few patients tolerate an effective dose of the drug. Hypothesis: Phosphodiesterases are one of several regulators of the β- signaling cascade. They hydrolyze their second messenger cAMP and reduce sympathetic activation. Previous studies in humans showed an upregulated PDE2 in heart failure. PDE2 is a special PDE, since it forms a connection between the β adrenergic and the NO – sGC – cGMP signaling pathway. It is the only PDE, which is activated by cGMP allosterically. As a result, PDE2 increasingly hydrolyzes cAMP. Therefore, PDE2 is a key enzyme in the negative cross talk of the cAMP and cGMP signaling cascade. This thesis investigates the function of PDE2 in chronic heart failure. Are there increased cardiac arrhythmias in mice, which have an overexpressed PDE2, in comparison to wild type mice? How do these mice react to adrenergic stress? And finally, does an overexpressed PDE2 protect against an Angiotensin II-induced cardiac hypertrophy? Methods: After genotyping the mice’s tail tips with the help of PCR tests, the morphology of the heart (diameter of the ventricular wall and the ventricle itself) could be determined with the help of transthoracic echocardiography. With this data, the cardiac output (ejection fraction, systolic and diastolic volume) and the heart weight were calculated. To record cardiac activity permanently, telemetric transmitters were implanted pectoral in the mice (n = 7), in order to gain heart rate variability and arrhythmia data (salvos, extrasystoles, ventricular tachycardias). To provoke the arrhythmia, mice (n = 4) were intraperitoneally administered ivabradine and isoproterenol. To provoke cardiac hypertrophy, the wild type (WT, n = 9) and transgenic mice (TG, n = 10) received angiotensin II using osmotic minipumps, implanted in the cervicothoracic back area for 14 or 28 days. The cardiac parameters for hypertrophy were measured using transthoracic echocardiography every 7 days, recorded for a maximum of 28 days. In addition, each heart was weighted immediately after killing the mice using isoflurane anesthesia and subsequent neck fracture. The results of the animals exposed to angiotensin II for 14 and 28 days were compared. After separating the ventricles from the atria, the hearts of the mice were cryopreserved, and the ventricular tissue was mechanically crushed for protein-chemical analysis. The centrifuged supernatant was used for Bradford protein determination to identify the protein concentration. Following this, a gel electrophoresis and Western blotting took place to detect and to determine the size of the proteins. To evaluate and to compare the results, protein levels were calibrated to the cardiomyocyte specific Calsequestrin. Results: Overexpression of PDE2 resulted in a fundamentally lower heart rate with preserved chronotropic adaptability and compensatory increased contractility. In addition, the TG mice showed a higher heart rate variability than the WT mice. There were no signs of influence on the HCN channel by the increased PDE2. With intensified stimulation of the β-adrenergic receptors, there was no significant difference in the increase in heart rate, but significantly fewer ventricular extrasystoles and arrhythmias in the TG mice than in the WT mice. Over time, the hypertrophic hearts, induced by Angiotensin II, showed an increased heart rate with preserved left ventricular function within both the WT and the TG mice. Nevertheless, both still showed an unspoiled sensitivity of the β-receptors, especially in regard of the ejection fraction. Both PKA- or CaMKII-dependent target proteins did not show an increased phosphorylation in neither of the phenotypes. Conclusion: As a summary, this thesis demonstrates that an overexpression of PDE2 as a cross link between the cGMP and cAMP signaling cascade reduces the heart rate similar to a beta blocker, without affecting the cardiac output. PDE2 prevented arrhythmias and still showed existing β-adrenergic receptor sensitivity in cardiac hypertrophy. This thesis could not show a protection against cardiac hypertrophy within the transgenic mice. Clinical data show upregulation of PDE2 in heart failure patients. Whether overstimulation of PDE2 in vivo and a consecutive increase in cAMP hydrolysis is actually cardioprotective in end-stage heart failure - or even before - requires further research.:Inhaltsverzeichnis I Abbildungsverzeichnis III Tabellenverzeichnis V Abkürzungsverzeichnis VI 1 Einleitung 1 1.1 Herzinsuffizienz 1 1.1.1 Epidemiologie 1 1.1.2 Ätiologie 2 1.1.3 Pathophysiologie 3 1.2 Behandlung der Herzinsuffizienz 4 1.2.1 Medikamentöse Behandlung 5 1.2.1.1 ACE-Hemmer und AT1-Antagonisten 5 1.2.1.2 Betablocker 5 1.2.1.3 Ivabradin 6 1.3 Wirkungen des vegetativen Nervensystems am Herzen 7 1.3.1 Physiologie der kardialen β-adrenergen Signalkaskade 7 1.3.2 Kompartimentierung in Kardiomyozyten 8 1.4 Physiologie der Phosphodiesterasen 9 1.4.1 Cyclisches Guanosinmonophosphat 9 1.4.2 Die Subtypen der Phosphodiesterasen 10 1.4.3 Die Interaktion von cGMP und cAMP 14 1.4.4 Die PDE2 in der Herzinsuffizienz 16 1.5 Vordaten 17 1.5.1 Überexpression von PDE2 im Mausmodell 17 1.6 Ziele dieser Arbeit 18 2 Material und Methoden 20 2.1 Herkunft und Gewinnung der Wildtyp- und transgenen Mäuse 20 2.1.1 Tierhaltung und Tötung 20 2.1.2 Genotypisierung der Mäuse 20 2.2 Echokardiographie zur Messung der kardiologischen Parameter 21 2.3 Einbau der telemetrischen Transmitter 24 2.4 Aufzeichnung des EKG 25 2.5 Einbau der osmotischen Minipumpen 25 2.6 Herzentnahme bei Mäusen 26 2.7 Proteinchemische Methode 26 2.7.1 Aufschluss des Herzgewebes zur proteinchemischen Analyse 26 2.7.2 Proteinbestimmung nach Bradford 27 2.7.3 SDS-PAGE 28 2.7.4 Transfer der Proteine auf Membranen (Westernblot) 29 2.7.5 Auftragen der Antikörper auf die Membranen 30 2.7.6 Aufnahmen 32 2.8 Statistische Auswertungen 32 3 Ergebnisse 33 3.1 Charakterisierung der Herzfunktion bei PDE2-Überexpression mittels EKG 33 3.1.1 Zirkadiane Messung der Herzfrequenz und Aktivität 33 3.1.2 Herzfrequenzvariabilität 35 3.1.3 Autonome Herzfunktion unter Ivabradin 36 3.1.4 Arrhythmieprovokation mit Isoproterenol 37 3.2 Die Rolle von PDE2 im Angiotensin II- induzierten kardialen Remodeling 41 3.2.1 Grundcharakterisierung der Herzfunktion bei niedriger PDE2- Überexpression mittels Echokardiographie 41 3.2.2 Auswirkung erhöhter PDE2-Spiegel nach chronischer Angiotensin II Applikation 43 3.3 Auswertung der Western Blots der PDE2A3-4808 Mäuse 49 4 Diskussion 54 4.1 Phosphodiesterase 2 reguliert die Herzfrequenz 54 4.2 Phosphodiesterase 2 schützt vor ventrikulären Arrhythmien 55 4.3 Phosphodiesterase 2 im kardialen Remodeling 56 4.4 Limitation der Überexpression durch zelluläre Kompartimentierung 58 4.5 Diskussion der Methodik und Bewertung der Ergebnisse 58 4.6 Ausblick: PDE2 als Downstream Target für Beta-Adrenorezeptor-Blockade? 59 5 Zusammenfassung/ Summary 61 5.1 Zusammenfassung 61 5.2 Summary 63 6 Anhang 66 6.1 Puffer 70 7 Literaturverzeichnis 72