Thesis (Ph.D.)--East Carolina University, 2009. / Presented to the faculty of the Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, the Brody School of Medicine at East Carolina University. Advisor: Brian McMillen. Title from PDF t.p. (viewed April 28, 2010). Includes bibliographical references.

The goal of this study was to investigate the therapeutic potential of memantine on functional recovery following a cortical contusion impact (CCI) traumatic brain injury (TBI) in a rodent model. A unilateral parietal injury was induced and compared to open sham surgeries under controlled experimental conditions. Animals were randomly assigned to a sham group, vehicle-treated injured group, or memantine-treated injured group. Dosage regimens were designed to provide serum concentrations in the range obtained with clinically approved doses, using both a low (5 mg/kg) and high (20 mg/kg) dose for 48 h. Functional recovery was assessed using five behavioral assessments, as well as neuropathological measurements. Motor function was observed using the locomotor placing task, the rotor-rod procedure, and a photobeam activity monitoring system. Cognitive function as learning ability was assessed through the Morris Water Maze and a passive avoidance assessment. Memantine did not improve motor or cognitive function in any of the behavioral assessments. These results indicate that while memantine may provide benefits at a neurobiological level, its therapeutic potential on the recovery of behavioral function following TBI is severely limited.

O nosso grupo está explorando como alternativa para a identificação de novas estratégias de tratamento o reposicionamento de drogas. Nesse contexto, nosso laboratório mostrou que memantina, um antagonista de receptores de glutamato NMDA, apresenta uma atividade tripanocida no ciclo de vida do T. cruzi, in vitro. Com base nessas informações, avaliamos o efeito da memantina em animais infectados com a cepa Y. O tratamento apresentou uma redução da parasitemia (40%) no 8º dpi e redução da carga parasitária no tecido cardíaco no 15º dpi. Uma vez que a cepa Y invade preferencialmente macrófagos, avaliamos o efeito de memantina em células RAW 264.7. Memantina diminuiu a produção de NO por células estimuladas com LPS, diminuiu o Ca2+i, e não houve uma redução de EROs. Memantina também interferiu no ciclo intracelular do parasita, reduzindo o número de células infectadas. Nossos resultados sugerem que o tratamento com memantina pode direcionar o sistema imune de modo a modular os receptores de tipo NMDA, através de um efeito direto ou indireto produzido pelo tratamento. / The search for new therapeutic targets has been of extreme importance for the specific treatment of Chagas disease. Our group is exploring as an alternative, a strategy for drug repurposing. In this context, our laboratory showed that memantine, an antagonistic of NMDA glutamate receptors, has a trypanocidal activity along the life cycle of T. cruzi, in vitro. Based on this information, we evaluated the effect of memantine in animals infected with Y strain. The treatment showed a reduction of parasitemia (40%) in 8th dpi and reduced parasitic load in cardiac tissues at 15th dpi. As the Y strain preferably invades macrophages, we evaluated the effect of memantine in RAW 264.7 cells. Memantine decreased NO production by cells stimulated with LPS, decreased Ca2+i, and did not cause a reduction in ROS. Memantine also interfere with the intracellular parasite cycle, reducing the number of infected cells. Our results suggest that treatment with memantine can target the immune system to modulate the NMDA receptor, through direct or indirect effect caused by the treatment.

O nosso grupo está explorando como alternativa para a identificação de novas estratégias de tratamento o reposicionamento de drogas. Nesse contexto, nosso laboratório mostrou que memantina, um antagonista de receptores de glutamato NMDA, apresenta uma atividade tripanocida no ciclo de vida do T. cruzi, in vitro. Com base nessas informações, avaliamos o efeito da memantina em animais infectados com a cepa Y. O tratamento apresentou uma redução da parasitemia (40%) no 8º dpi e redução da carga parasitária no tecido cardíaco no 15º dpi. Uma vez que a cepa Y invade preferencialmente macrófagos, avaliamos o efeito de memantina em células RAW 264.7. Memantina diminuiu a produção de NO por células estimuladas com LPS, diminuiu o Ca2+i, e não houve uma redução de EROs. Memantina também interferiu no ciclo intracelular do parasita, reduzindo o número de células infectadas. Nossos resultados sugerem que o tratamento com memantina pode direcionar o sistema imune de modo a modular os receptores de tipo NMDA, através de um efeito direto ou indireto produzido pelo tratamento. / The search for new therapeutic targets has been of extreme importance for the specific treatment of Chagas disease. Our group is exploring as an alternative, a strategy for drug repurposing. In this context, our laboratory showed that memantine, an antagonistic of NMDA glutamate receptors, has a trypanocidal activity along the life cycle of T. cruzi, in vitro. Based on this information, we evaluated the effect of memantine in animals infected with Y strain. The treatment showed a reduction of parasitemia (40%) in 8th dpi and reduced parasitic load in cardiac tissues at 15th dpi. As the Y strain preferably invades macrophages, we evaluated the effect of memantine in RAW 264.7 cells. Memantine decreased NO production by cells stimulated with LPS, decreased Ca2+i, and did not cause a reduction in ROS. Memantine also interfere with the intracellular parasite cycle, reducing the number of infected cells. Our results suggest that treatment with memantine can target the immune system to modulate the NMDA receptor, through direct or indirect effect caused by the treatment.

La prise en charge de la démence est un défi pour les cliniciens tant ces patients constituent une population hétérogène. Dans le cadre de cette prise en charge, l’intérêt des antidémentiels (anticholinestérasiques et mémantine) est débattue : l’efficacité clinique semble discutable et les effets indésirables non négligeables. En 2010, des recommandations de bonnes pratiques ont laissé libre choix aux médecins de prescrire ou non ces médicaments. Depuis des questions restent en suspens : 1/ quelle est l’évolution des taux de prescription de ces médicaments depuis ces recommandations, en d’autres termes comment l’expertise clinique des médecins, un des piliers du tryptique de l’evidence based medicine, s’est-elle exprimée ? 2/ quels sont les facteurs qui restent associés aujourd’hui au fait de prescrire ou non ces médicaments ? et 3/ y a-t-il une sur-hospitalisation liée à leurs effets indésirables ?La question de la surmédicalisation est au cœur de notre problématique de thèse. Dans ce travail, nous avons répondu à ces 3 questions posées qui ont constitué nos 3 objectifs. Nous avons pu montrer que les médecins semblaient de moins en moins confiants vis-à-vis des antidémentiels avec une diminution de leur prescription depuis 2010 et des conséquences importantes en termes de coûts évités. Lorsqu’ils continuaient d’être prescrits, ces traitements l’étaient essentiellement chez les patients les plus jeunes ou en meilleur état de santé. Enfin, les anticholinestérasiques, essentiellement la rivastigmine, augmentaient le risque d’hospitalisation via des effets indésirables cardiaques et digestifs. Nos résultats plaident en défaveur de la prescription d’antidémentiels tant du point de vue de la morbidité que des dépenses de santé. La question du point de vue du patient reste posée. / Patients with dementia raise therapeutic challenges, as they constitute a heterogeneous population. As part of this management, the interest of antidementia drugs (cholinesterase inhibitors and memantine) is debated: the clinical efficacy seems questionable and the adverse effects appear to be significant. The 2010 recommendations gave to cliniciens the choice to prescribe or not these drugs. Since questions remain unanswered: 1 / what is the evolution of prescription rates of these drugs since these recommendations, in other words how the clinical expertise of cliniciens, one of the pillars the evidence based medicine, is expressed? 2 / what are the factors that remain today associated with prescribing these drugs or not? and 3 / Is there over-hospitalization related to their side effects?The question of medical overuse is a central point of our thesis problem. In this work, we answered these 3 questions which constituted our 3 objectives. We were able to show that cliniciens seemed less and less confident about antidementia drugs with a decrease in their prescription since 2010 and significant consequences in terms of avoided costs. When they continued to be prescribed, these treatments were mainly used in the youngest or most healthy patients. Finally, cholinesterase inhibitors, mainly rivastigmine, increased the risk of hospitalization via cardiac and digestive side effects. Our results argue against the prescription of antidementia drugs both from the point of view of morbidity and health expenditures. The question from the patient's point of view remains.

Previous studies showed that memantine inhibits tau hyperphosphorylation in vitro. In this study, phosphorylated tau (P-tau) and total tau (T-tau) were measured before and after 6 month treatment with memantine in 12 subjects ranging from normal cognition with subjective memory complaints, through mild cognitive impairment to mild Alzheimer's disease. Thirteen non-treated individuals served as controls. Treatment was associated with a reduction of P-tau in subjects with normal cognition. No treatment effects were seen among impaired individuals, suggesting that longer treatment time may be necessary to achieve biomarker effect in this group.

A hidrocefalia é um desequilíbrio no fluxo ou absorção do líquido cefalorraquidiano, resultando em uma dilatação no sistema ventricular. O tratamento da hidrocefalia usualmente utilizado é cirúrgico (shunt), mas nem todos os pacientes podem ser submetidos ao tratamento cirúrgico imediatamente após o diagnóstico. Com isso, medidas neuroprotetoras vêm sendo testadas a fim de minimizar as lesões teciduais envolvidas. A Memantina é antagonista não competitivo do receptor N-metil-D-aspartato (NMDA), que revelou ação neuroprotetora na Doença de Alzheimer. O objetivo desse trabalho foi avaliar a resposta neuroprotetora da Memantina em animais tratados ou não com derivação liquórica. Foram utilizados ratos machos Wistar submetidos à hidrocefalia através de injeção intracisternal de caulim, divididos em cinco grupos: controle (n=10), hidrocefálicos sem tratamento (n=10), hidrocefálicos tratados com Memantina intraperitoneal (20mg/kg/dia) (n=10), hidrocefálicos derivados (n=10), hidrocefálicos derivados tratados com Memantina (n=10). Para avaliação do tratamento foram realizados testes de comportamento (open field, monitor automático de atividade, water maze e reconhecimento de objeto), estudos histológicos e imunoistoquímicos. O tratamento da Memantina resultou em importante melhora no desenvolvimento sensoriomotor (p<0,05), maior agilidade e exploração do ambiente, preservação da memória espacial e de reconhecimento e maior capacidade de aprendizagem (p<0,05). Reduziu a reação astrocitária no córtex e na matriz germinativa (p<0,05) por imunomarcação do GFAP. Conclui-se que a Memantina oferece efeitos benéficos às estruturas que foram afetadas pelo aumento ventricular e pode ser considerada uma terapia adjuvante ao tratamento cirúrgico da hidrocefalia. / Hydrocephalus is an imbalance in the flow or absorption of cerebrospinal fluid, resulting in a dilation of the ventricular system. The treatment of hydrocephalus usually used is surgical (shunt), but not all patients can undergo surgical treatment immediately after diagnosis. With this, neuroprotective measures have been tested in order to minimize the tissue lesions involved. Memantine is a non-competitive N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist, which revealed neuroprotective action in Alzheimer\'s disease. The aim of this study was to evaluate the neuroprotective response of Memantine in animals treated with or without a shunt. Male Wistar rats were submitted to hydrocephalus by intracisternal injection of kaolin, divided into five groups: control (n = 10), hydrocephalus without treatment (n = 10), hydrocephalus treated with intraperitoneal Memantine (20mg / kg / day) (n = 10), hydrocephalus treated with shunt (n = 10), hydrocephalus treated with shunt plus Memantine (n = 10). To evaluate the treatment, behavior tests (open field, automatic activity monitor, water maze and object recognition), histological and immunohistochemical studies were performed. The treatment with Memantine resulted in a significant improvement in sensorimotor development (p <0.05), greater agility and exploration of the environment, preservation of spatial and recognition memory, and greater learning ability (p <0.05). Reduced astrocytic reaction in the cortex and germ matrix (p <0.05) by GFAP immunolabeling. It is concluded that Memantine offers beneficial effects to the structures that have been affected by the ventricular increase and can be considered an adjuvant therapy to the surgical treatment of hydrocephalus.

Depressive disorders are among the most frequent psychiatric diseases in the Western world with prevalence between 9% and 18%. Poor compliance and inappropriate antidepressant discontinuation invokes long-term morbidity, and appear linked to hippocampal shrinkage. Despite major advances in pharmacological treatment of the illness over the past 3040 years, currently available agents have distinct shortfalls both in clinical efficacy and in maintenance of response. This implies a greater long-term morbidity with significant impact on the patient, the patient's family as well as economic implications to health care managers and providers. The major reason for this state of affairs is our poor understanding of the neurobiology of depression and hence, of antidepressant (AD) action. AD drugs are thus not addressing the crucial neurobiological target underlying the illness, and new strategies and treatments are urgently needed. In recent years, depression has been associated with disturbances in excitotoxic glutamatergic activity, yet this has not been systematically evaluated. While the role of neurotransmitters such as serotonin, noradrenaline and dopamine has been extensively studied, new evidence suggests a role for the unique neurotransmitter nitric oxide (NO). Nitric oxide (NO), is activated by glutamatergic systems in various limbic and other regions of the brain, and has recently also been implicated in anxiety and affective disorders. Of special interest is the putative role of NO in cellular memory, synaptic plasticity and cell survival, all-important processes in the neuropathology and neurodevelopment of depression. Recent clinical studies have provided evidence of the role of the NO-pathway in depression, while preclinical studies have demonstrated the anxiolytic and antidepressant actions of nitric oxide synthase (NOS)-inhibitors. Moreover, NO interacts with other classical transmitters that have a regulatory role on mood, particularly the monoamines, as well as glutamate and gammaaminobutyric acid (GABA). In the current study the role of the NO-cGMP pathway in AD action was investigated, after chronic imipramine (IMI) and after IMI withdrawal, using a learned helplessness paradigm. Behavioural changes, hippocampal NOS activity and cGMP accumulation was determined together with pharmacological manipulation of the NO-cGMP pathway. Chronic IMI, 15 mg/kg/day intraperitoneal (ip) administration induced a pronounced reduction in swim immobility time in the forced swim test (FST), with no effect on horizontal or vertical locomotor activity. These behavioural changes were accompanied by a significant reduction in NOS enzyme activity and cGMP accumulation. In order to confirm the involvement of the NO-cGMP pathway in the AD action of IMI, chronic (3 weeks) IMI treatment was followed by an acute withdrawal of 7 days. Acute withdrawal, after chronic IMI treatment, resulted in a significant increase in swim immobility time and an increase in NOS enzyme activity and cGMP levels. In fact, NOS activity was raised above that of control, not just higher than the effect of chronic IMI. In order to assess the possible role of the NMDA-NO-cGMP pathway in AD withdrawal, the NMDA receptor antagonist, memantine, and the NOS/guanylyl cyclase (GC) inhibitor, methylene blue (MB), were administered during the 7 day IMI withdrawal period. Memantine (5 mg/kg/d ip), during the 7 day IMI withdrawal period, significantly reversed the increase in immobility time evoked after IMI withdrawal. This was accompanied by a significant reduction in NOS enzyme activity and a tendency to decrease cGMP levels. This data confirms that the antidepressant action of IMI, as well as IMI withdrawal, is associated with actions on the NMDA-GIu-NO-cGMP pathway. Particularly. IMI withdrawal evokes an increase in glutamate activity that is responsible for NOS activation. During the 7 day IMI withdrawal period, MB (15 mg/kg/d ip) also significantly reversed the increased immobility time after IMI withdrawal and was accompanied by a tendency to decrease NOS enzyme activity and cGMP levels in the rat hippocampus, however statistical significance was not reached. Although not emphatic, this data implies a possible role of the NO-cGMP pathway in AD action and AD withdrawal. In order to determine whether the observed IMI withdrawal effects on the NO-cGMP pathway may occur through an initial destabilisation in the serotonergic system, the 5-HT2a/2c receptor antagonist, ritanserin (4 mg/kg/d ip), was administered during the IMI withdrawal period. These studies revealed that antidepressant withdrawal evokes an increase in 5-HT2-mediated activity, and that antidepressant-induced NOS activation after withdrawal has its origin in serotonergic hyperactivity. Clearly, this is supportive of a distinct relationship between the NO and serotonergic system in antidepressant response. On its own, ritanserin was found to increase NOS and cGMP levels, yet during IMI withdrawal this response was lost, suggesting that IMI withdrawal alters the response to a 5-HT2a/2c receptor antagonist, which may have major clinical implications. In conclusion, the AD action of IMI, as well as chronic IMI withdrawal, involves actions on the NO-cGMP pathway. Withdrawal of ADS is associated with a loss of AD efficacy together with an increase in release of NO and cGMP. The NMDA antagonist, memantine, and the NOS/GC inhibitor, MB, reversed these responses therefore suggesting that the NMDA-GIu-NO-cGMP pathway may be a new putative target in understanding the neurobiology of AD action. Finally, NOS activation following withdrawal suggest that inappropriate withdrawal during the treatment of depression may mediate neurodegenerative pathology observed in recurrent depression, possibly by severely increased hippocampal NOS activity which is toxic to neurons. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmacology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2005.

Depressive disorders are among the most frequent psychiatric diseases in the Western world with prevalence between 9% and 18%. Poor compliance and inappropriate antidepressant discontinuation invokes long-term morbidity, and appear linked to hippocampal shrinkage. Despite major advances in pharmacological treatment of the illness over the past 3040 years, currently available agents have distinct shortfalls both in clinical efficacy and in maintenance of response. This implies a greater long-term morbidity with significant impact on the patient, the patient's family as well as economic implications to health care managers and providers. The major reason for this state of affairs is our poor understanding of the neurobiology of depression and hence, of antidepressant (AD) action. AD drugs are thus not addressing the crucial neurobiological target underlying the illness, and new strategies and treatments are urgently needed. In recent years, depression has been associated with disturbances in excitotoxic glutamatergic activity, yet this has not been systematically evaluated. While the role of neurotransmitters such as serotonin, noradrenaline and dopamine has been extensively studied, new evidence suggests a role for the unique neurotransmitter nitric oxide (NO). Nitric oxide (NO), is activated by glutamatergic systems in various limbic and other regions of the brain, and has recently also been implicated in anxiety and affective disorders. Of special interest is the putative role of NO in cellular memory, synaptic plasticity and cell survival, all-important processes in the neuropathology and neurodevelopment of depression. Recent clinical studies have provided evidence of the role of the NO-pathway in depression, while preclinical studies have demonstrated the anxiolytic and antidepressant actions of nitric oxide synthase (NOS)-inhibitors. Moreover, NO interacts with other classical transmitters that have a regulatory role on mood, particularly the monoamines, as well as glutamate and gammaaminobutyric acid (GABA). In the current study the role of the NO-cGMP pathway in AD action was investigated, after chronic imipramine (IMI) and after IMI withdrawal, using a learned helplessness paradigm. Behavioural changes, hippocampal NOS activity and cGMP accumulation was determined together with pharmacological manipulation of the NO-cGMP pathway. Chronic IMI, 15 mg/kg/day intraperitoneal (ip) administration induced a pronounced reduction in swim immobility time in the forced swim test (FST), with no effect on horizontal or vertical locomotor activity. These behavioural changes were accompanied by a significant reduction in NOS enzyme activity and cGMP accumulation. In order to confirm the involvement of the NO-cGMP pathway in the AD action of IMI, chronic (3 weeks) IMI treatment was followed by an acute withdrawal of 7 days. Acute withdrawal, after chronic IMI treatment, resulted in a significant increase in swim immobility time and an increase in NOS enzyme activity and cGMP levels. In fact, NOS activity was raised above that of control, not just higher than the effect of chronic IMI. In order to assess the possible role of the NMDA-NO-cGMP pathway in AD withdrawal, the NMDA receptor antagonist, memantine, and the NOS/guanylyl cyclase (GC) inhibitor, methylene blue (MB), were administered during the 7 day IMI withdrawal period. Memantine (5 mg/kg/d ip), during the 7 day IMI withdrawal period, significantly reversed the increase in immobility time evoked after IMI withdrawal. This was accompanied by a significant reduction in NOS enzyme activity and a tendency to decrease cGMP levels. This data confirms that the antidepressant action of IMI, as well as IMI withdrawal, is associated with actions on the NMDA-GIu-NO-cGMP pathway. Particularly. IMI withdrawal evokes an increase in glutamate activity that is responsible for NOS activation. During the 7 day IMI withdrawal period, MB (15 mg/kg/d ip) also significantly reversed the increased immobility time after IMI withdrawal and was accompanied by a tendency to decrease NOS enzyme activity and cGMP levels in the rat hippocampus, however statistical significance was not reached. Although not emphatic, this data implies a possible role of the NO-cGMP pathway in AD action and AD withdrawal. In order to determine whether the observed IMI withdrawal effects on the NO-cGMP pathway may occur through an initial destabilisation in the serotonergic system, the 5-HT2a/2c receptor antagonist, ritanserin (4 mg/kg/d ip), was administered during the IMI withdrawal period. These studies revealed that antidepressant withdrawal evokes an increase in 5-HT2-mediated activity, and that antidepressant-induced NOS activation after withdrawal has its origin in serotonergic hyperactivity. Clearly, this is supportive of a distinct relationship between the NO and serotonergic system in antidepressant response. On its own, ritanserin was found to increase NOS and cGMP levels, yet during IMI withdrawal this response was lost, suggesting that IMI withdrawal alters the response to a 5-HT2a/2c receptor antagonist, which may have major clinical implications. In conclusion, the AD action of IMI, as well as chronic IMI withdrawal, involves actions on the NO-cGMP pathway. Withdrawal of ADS is associated with a loss of AD efficacy together with an increase in release of NO and cGMP. The NMDA antagonist, memantine, and the NOS/GC inhibitor, MB, reversed these responses therefore suggesting that the NMDA-GIu-NO-cGMP pathway may be a new putative target in understanding the neurobiology of AD action. Finally, NOS activation following withdrawal suggest that inappropriate withdrawal during the treatment of depression may mediate neurodegenerative pathology observed in recurrent depression, possibly by severely increased hippocampal NOS activity which is toxic to neurons. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmacology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2005.

A Doença de Alzheimer (DA) é uma doença cerebral progressiva que resulta em prejuízos na memória e disfunção cognitiva global. Entre as principais características neuropatológicas associadas a DA estão à presença de placas senis, emaranhados neurofibrilares e a hiperfosforilação da proteína Tau. A hiperativação do sistema glutamatérgico tem sido implicada na fisiopatologia da DA. O excesso de glutamato na fenda sináptica causa hiperativação do seu receptor ionótropico N-metill-D-aspartato (NMDA) o que favorece o aumento do influxo de cálcio e morte neuronal. A administração intracerebral de ácido ocadáico (AO) causa alterações morfológicas e funcionais similares à DA. O AO promove a inibição da proteína fosfatase 2A (PP2A) favorecendo as atividades cinásicas de proteínas como a cinase dependente de ciclina 5 (Cdk5). A memantina (MN) é uma das principais drogas utilizadas no tratamento da DA e o seu mecanismo de ação envolve um antagonismo não competitivo de baixa afinidade pela subunidade NR2B do receptor NMDA. Neste trabalho, foram avaliados efeitos do pré-tratamento com MN em um modelo semelhante a DA induzido pela administração intrahipocampal de AO em ratos. O pré-tratamento com MN preveniu o déficit na memória especial causado pela infusão intrahipocampal de AO. Os mecanismos envolvidos nestes efeitos neuroprotetores envolvem a prevenção do aumento de glutamato no liquido cefalorraquidiano, juntamente com a regulação da expressão de Cdk5 e em conseqüência a prevenção do aumento da fosforilação de Tau. Desta maneira, a MN pode ser um alvo terapêutico para prevenir as alterações comportamentais e neuroquímicas em um modelo similar a DA induzido pelo AO. / Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive brain disease that causes memory loss and global cognitive dysfunction. The neuropathological alterations associated with AD include senile plaques, neurofibrillary tangles and Tau protein hyperphosphorylation. The glutamatergic system is implicated in the pathophysiology of AD. Indeed, the excessive glutamate levels in the synaptic cleft may cause hyperactivation of glutamate ionotropic N-metill-Daspartate (NMDA), which favors increase calcium influx and neuronal death. The intracerebral administration of okadaic acid (OA) causes morphological and functional alterations similar to AD. The OA inhibits the protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) thus overstimulating the kinases activities. Memantine (MN) is a drug currently used in the treatment of AD, which mechanism involves a noncompetitive low affinity antagonism for NR2B subunit of NMDA receptors. In this work we evaluate the effects of pretreatment with MN in an AD-like model in rats induced by intrahippocampal administration of OA. The pretreatment with MN could prevent the spatial memory deficits caused by OA intrahipocampal administration in rats. The mechanisms underlying this neuroprotective effects involves the prevention of the increase in brain glutamate levels along with regulation of Cdk5 and, in consequence, downstream phosphorylation of Tau (ser199/202) protein. To conclude, MN has potential therapeutic role in preventing behavioral and neurochemical alterations caused by an AD like model induced by OA.