Cysteine proteases are a class of proteolytic enzymes, which are involved in a series of metabolic and catabolic processes, such as protein turnover, digestion, blood coagulation, apoptosis, fertilization and cell differentiation, and the immune response system. The development of novel potent and selective inhibitors for cysteine proteases has therefore gained increasing attention among medicinal chemists. In this thesis we have reported the design, synthesis, and evaluation of several peptidyl inhibitors for clan CA and clan CD cysteine proteases. We have continued the investigation of dipeptidyl vinyl sulfones as potent and selective inhibitors for dipeptidyl peptidase I (DPPI), a lysosomal cysteine protease, which is involved in the processing of intracellular proteases, such as granzymes. We have found that DPPI tolerates negatively charged amino acid residues in the P2 position with inhibition rates of 7,600 M-1s-1. Dipeptidyl vinyl sulfones with positively charged amino acid residues at the P1 position, however, do not inhibit DPPI at all. A second project focused on the epoxidation of the double bond of the vinyl sulfone moiety of the dipeptidyl vinyl sulfones. Instead of epoxidizing the double bond, we found that an isomerization had occurred. The newly formed compounds were determined to be allyl sulfones. We tested this new class of inhibitors with clan CA proteases and obtained inhibition rates of 560 M-1s-1 for Cbz-Leu-Phe-AS-Ph with calpain I. Two new classes of compounds for the clan CD protease S. mansoni legumain were designed, synthesized, and evaluated. Aza-peptidyl epoxides were found to be potent and selective inhibitors of S. mansoni legumain with IC50’s as low as 45 nM. Aza-peptide Michael acceptors were derived from the aza-peptide epoxide design and synthesized in an analogous fashion. The aza-peptide Michael acceptors inhibited S. mansoni legumain with even lower IC50’s, as low as 10 nM. However, the aza-peptide Michael acceptors react with thioalkylating agents contained in the buffer, such as DTT. The rates of degradation were determined spectroscopically, and half-lives of 3 to 20 minutes were measured. This observation gave us insights into the enzymatic mechanism and allowed us to determine the point of attack for the legumain active site cysteine thiol.

Ethephon treatment caused SPCP3 gene expression (Chen et al., 2006), reduction of chlorophyll content, decrease of Fv/Fm value, increase of H2O2 amount, and more cell death, and accelerated leaf senescence in detached sweet potato leave. Exogenous application of modulators such as reduced glutathione, EGTA or cycloheximide delay leaf senescence and cell death caused by ethephon. These data suggest that oxidative stress, calcium influx and de novo synthesized protein may influence ethephon-mediated leaf senescence and cell death. When ethephon induced leaf senescence and cell death, granulin-containing cysteine protease SPCP3 gene was induced. Transgenic Arabidopsis system was used to explore the possible physiological role and function of SPCP3. The results showed that ectopic expression of SPCP3 in transgenic Arabidopsis plants caused earlier flowering, less rosette leaves when flowering, higher yellowing silique percentage during harvest, and lower germination percentage than that in control. During drought treatment, transgenic plants also exhibited reduction of Fv/Fm value and relative water content, but an increase in H2O2 content and cell death. These data suggest that ecopic expression of SPCP3 caused altered developmental characteristics and drought stress sensitivity. Previous report suggests that granulin-like domain may play a role in regulating enzymatic activity of granulin-containing cysteine protease (Yamada et al., 2001). In this report we demonstrate that pre-removal of granulin-like domain of SPCP3 does not affect significantly drought stress sensitivity compared to full-length SPCP3 in transgenic Arabidopsis plants. Based on these data we conclude that oxidative stress, calcium influx, and de novo synthesized proteins may be involved in ethylene signaling leading to leaf senescence and SPCP3 gene expression in detached sweet potato leaves, and ectopic SPCP3 expression in transgenic Arabidopsis plants caused altered developmental characteristics and enhanced drought sensitivity. Granulin-like domain may have no significant influence on SPCP3-mediated effect on drought stress sensitivity.

Thesis (MSc (Plant Biotechnology))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ABSTRACT: Nitric Oxide (NO) is an essential bioregulatory molecule in plant growth, development, and tolerance against biotic and abiotic stresses. In legume root nodules, abiotic stresses impose restraint on metabolic capacity of bacteria and cause oxidative damage to cellular macromolecules, leading to inhibition of nitrogenase activity. In this study, the primary aim was to determine the influence of NO signaling on cysteine protease activity in soybean (Glycine. max [L] Merr) root nodules. Intact plants were treated with a NO donor, diethylenetriamine/nitric oxide adjunct (DETA/NO), 8-(4-chlorophenylthio)-[CPT]- cGMP, sorbitol and sodium chloride (NaCl). The root nodule cysteine protease activity was measured using the chromogenic substrate N-benzoil-L-p-nitroanilide (L-BAPNA). The results demonstrated NO as acting both as a protection against programmed cell death (PCD) at low exogenously applied NO concentrations, or as inducing PCD through regulating the cysteine proteases activity in root nodules when NO is applied at elevated concentrations. In the root nodules, the activity of cysteine protease is regulated either through cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP)-dependent during abiotic stress or cGMP-independent pathways during normal root nodule development. The purpose of this research was to highlight the importance of NO in cell signaling and cysteine protease activity in legume root nodules. We also focused on the effect of abiotic stress on two maize genotypes as well as the influence of abiotic stress on cysteine protease activity in the abiotic stress-sensitive maize genotype than the tolerant genotype. The study suggests that cysteine protease activity can be used as early screen to identify abiotic stress-sensitive/tolerant maize genotype upon exposure to abiotic stress. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Geen Afrikaanse opsomming beskikbaar. / National Research Foundation

A Xylella fastidiosa é uma bactéria gram-negativa que infecta o xilema das plantas causando muitas vezes a maturação precoce e a diminuição dos frutos. Ela é responsável por importantes perdas na economia, no Brasil é a causadora de doenças de Citrus Variegated Chlorosis (CVC) e a da doença de Pierce nos Estados Unidos. As proteases desempenham funções vitais no ciclo de vida de muitos parasitas, muitas estão envolvidas em processos infecciosos, a Xylellaína é uma cisteíno protease que é diferentemente expressa em cepas patogênicas a não patogênica. A compreensão de seu mecanismo catalítico, através do estudo da sua estrutura e função, pode ajudar no planejamento de inibidores seletivos, potenciais agentes contra as doenças fitopatológicas ocasionadas pela X. fastidiosa. Sua estrutura molecular foi elucidada no Laboratório de Cristalografia de Proteínas e Biologia Estrutural do Instituto de Física de São Carlos (USP), estudos estruturais mostraram que a proteína se apresenta na forma de uma pró-proteína, pois está inativa devido a uma pró-região que bloqueia o sítio catalítico. Também foi verificada a presença de um nucleotídeo na estrutura da Xylellaína próximo a pró-região, como hipótese foi considerada a relação entre o nucleotídeo e o mecanismo de ativação da proteína. A influência do nucleotídeo na atividade funcional da enzima foi constatada através da comparação de ensaios enzimáticos entre a enzima nativa e mutantes. As mutações foram planejadas com a intenção de ocasionar a desestabilização do nucleotídeo, por isso foram mutados os resíduos da pró-região que interagem diretamente com o ele. As mutações foram Fenilalanina 45 (F45), Arginina 43 (R43) e F45/R43, todos os resíduos foram mutados para Alaninas (A). Os resultados mostraram que os valores de Km obtidos para a proteína nativa e suas mutantes apresentaram consideráveis alterações quando comparado entre eles, esse efeito não foi percebido para a eficiência catalítica. Conclui-se que as mutações pouco alteraram a capacidade da enzima converter o subsrato em produto, mas houve significantes alterações no reconhecimento do substrato. Esse resultado corrobora com a hipótese de que a existência do nucleotídeo está relacionada com o mecanismo de ativação da proteína. / Xylella fastidiosa is a Gram-negative bacterium which infects the plant xylem system causing in many cases precocious maturation and diminution of fruits. It is responsible for economically important plant diseases, such as the Citrus Variegated Chlorosis (CVC). Proteases might be involved in the infection process by disrupting plant tissue. Xylellain is a cysteine protease which is differently expressed in strain pathogen and non-pathogen of X. fastidiosa. The 3D structure of xylellain was solved by our group and structural studies show that this protein has a proenzyme form and a ribonucleotideo close to the amine terminal region. Our hypothesis is that protein-nucleotide interactions are related to xylellains activation mechanism. To evaluate the influence of the nucleotide in the functional activity of enzyme, point mutations in aminoacids which interact directly with this ribonucleotide were carried out. The point mutations are phenylalanine 45 (F45) and arginine 43 (R43), individually mutated for alanine (A) residues. One way to quantify the changes caused by the alteration of a nucleotide is the direct comparison between the kinetic enzyme assays of native and mutant proteins. Greater variations between the values of Km than in the values of catalytic efficiency were observed. This suggests that the speed of production varied by enzyme-substrate. However the mutations caused little change on the ability of the protease to catalyze the reaction. This result is in agreement with the hypothesis that the nucleotide provides the structural support for the hinge formation on the N-terminal domain, thus directing the inhibitory peptide inside the active site of the enzyme. Therefore, the nucleotide may be exerting regulatory functions in vivo, possibly in the folding or activation of the protein and performance of catalytic function.

Novel conserved amino acid variations of papaya cystatin (PC) were investigated by amino acid substitutions using oryzacystatin-I (OCI) as a model plant cystatin for comparison. These amino acid residues in the conserved motifs are involved in binding with cysteine proteases, these include the GG (Gly-Gly) in the N-terminal region for both OCI and PC, the (Q)QVVAG (Gln-Val-Val-Ala-Gly) motif for OCI and (Q)AVVEG (Ala-Val-Val-Glu-Gly) motif for PC in the first inhibitory loop, and the PW (Pro-Trp) motif for OCI and LW (Leu-Trp) motif for PC in the second inhibitory loop. Recombinant OCI and PC mutant proteins were expressed in Escherichia coli and were tested for altered inhibitory activity against commercial cysteine proteases (papain and cathepsin L) and extracts from Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata) larvae, from banana weevil larvae (Cosmopolites sordidus) and tobacco leaf extracts (Nicotiana benthamiana). In all tests higher amounts of PC had to be used to obtain similar inhibition levels as OCI. Changing the amino acid Q at position 52 to E in OCI in the first inhibitory loop, had lowered the Ki value of the mutant against the commercial proteases. Concurrently the same amino acid string (EQ) in PC had resulted in a significantly decreased Ki value compared to PC wild-type and other mutants. All other OCI mutants were less efficient than the wild-type OCI, whereas all PC first inhibitory loop mutants had improved inhibitory activity against protease activity with the highest improvement against the protease extracts was found for the substitution of E with A at position 55. This study has shown the importance of the three conserved motifs and that it is possible to improve the binding capacity of a plant cystatins to cysteine protease activity by amino acid substitution using site-directed mutagenesis. By mutating individual amino acid residues in the first binding loop of the relatively “weak” papaya cystatin to amino acid residues found in OCI caused a significant improvement in inhibitory potency of PC. Copyright / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2011. / Plant Science / unrestricted

Le projet de thèse à pour but de produire et caractériser un nouvel allergène de pollen d'ambroisie. Le projet est décliné en cinq axes: production d'une forme recombinante mature et en conformation native, caractérisation structurale, étude de la fonction enzymatique, étude de l'allergenicité et l'immunogénicité et évaluation du potentiel thérapeutique. / The goal of the thesis project is to product and caracterize a novel ragweed pollen allergen.The project have five axes: production of recombinant mature and native form,structurale caracterization, study of enzymatique function, study of allergenicity and immunogenicity and evaluation of therapeutic potential.

No description available.

Cysteine proteases are associated with xylem tracheary element differentiation. XCP1 was recently identified as a xylem-specific cysteine protease in Arabidopsis (Zhao, et al., 2000). For this study a recombinant polyhistidine-tagged XCP1 (XCP1H6) was expressed and purified from an E. coli expression system. A polyclonal anti-XCP1 antibody was produced using purified XCP1H6. Immunoblot analysis of a developmental time course of xylem and bark protein extracted from root-hypocotyl segments demonstrated that XCP1 was expressed in xylem only. Further analysis under optimized immunoblot conditions, however, revealed that anti-XCP1 antibody reacted with protein present in both xylem and bark. The vast majority of immunoreactivity, however, was restricted to xylem. Cell-type localization of GUS expression under the control of a putative XCP1 promoter indicated that the XCP1 promoter specifies expression of XCP1 in tracheary elements in leaves, stems, roots and flowers. XCP1 promoter-driven GUS activity was not associated with senescing tissues. / Master of Science

Secondary xylem, commonly known as wood, is a valuable commercial commodity. Among the major components of wood are the elongated, thick-walled water-conducting cells known as tracheary elements. Understanding tracheary element differentiation and maturation is of scientific and commercial importance as it may lead to broad understanding of cellular differentiation processes as well as ways to increase both the quality and quantity of wood produced by economically important tree species. One way to begin to understand the regulation of tracheary element differentiation is to identify elements that control expression of genes associated with tracheary elements. In Arabidopsis thaliana, Xylem Cysteine Protease 1 (XCP1) is specifically expressed in tracheary elements where it catalyzes microautolysis. Thus XCP1 can serve as a useful model for identifying factors that regulate tracheary element-specific gene expression. A deletion analysis of the XCP1 promoter was conducted to identify promoter elements that are necessary and sufficient for tracheary element-restricted gene expression. Two regions required for tracheary element-specific gene expression were identified. One of these was assembled as a multimeric bait construct and used in yeast one-hybrid assays to identify candidate transcription factors that bind to the XCP1 promoter region. Subsequently, a southwestern blot analysis was used to identify transcription factors displaying specific binding to a previously reported cis-element, CTTCAAAGCCA, found in the XCP1 promoter and other tracheary element-associated genes from multiple species. / Master of Science

Clostridium difficile est une bactérie pathogène responsable de diarrhées nosocomiales et de la plupart des colites pseudomembraneuses. Le principal facteur de risque est la prise d’antibiotiques qui altère la composition du microbiote intestinal, et favorise ainsi l’implantation de la bactérie au niveau colique. Après une étape de colonisation, la bactérie produit ses principaux facteurs de virulence, les toxines A et B. La colonisation est un processus multifactoriel, qui met en jeu différentes protéines de surface dont des adhésines et une cystéine protéase Cwp84.Dans une première partie, nous avons analysé le processus de maturation de la protéase Cwp84, ainsi que sa localisation dans la bactérie, afin de mieux comprendre son rôle dans la virulence de C. difficile. La protéase recombinante, purifiée sous forme de zymogène, présente un processus de maturation particulier comprenant des clivages successifs, qui aboutissent à la forme mature de 47 KDa. La protéase ainsi activée présente une activité protéolytique sur la fibronectine. Dans la bactérie, Cwp84 existe sous deux formes majoritaires, associées à la surface de la bactérie : une première forme, d’environ 80 KDa, associée aux protéines de la couche S, dont le rôle serait de cliver le précurseur des protéines de la couche S en deux protéines matures ; une deuxième forme, d’environ 50 KDa correspondant vraisemblablement à la forme mature de la protéase recombinante de 47 KDa, est retrouvée à la fois dans la fraction extracellulaire et associée à la surface de la bactérie. Nous avons montré que la protéase rélarguée est capable de se ré-associer sous sa forme mature de manière spécifique à la surface de C. difficile. Dans une deuxième partie, nous avons analysé l’impact de conditions environnementales mimant celles rencontrées par la bactérie au cours de son transit dans le tractus digestif de l’hôte, sur la modulation de facteurs de colonisation, dont la protéase. Nous avons montré qu’un pH acide favorise à la fois l’expression et le processus de maturation de la protéase vers sa forme mature de 47 KDa. Des analyses protéomiques et transcriptomiques ont montré que d’autres protéines impliquées dans colonisation sont surexprimées dans un milieu avec glucose, cette régulation étant vraisemblablement liée à la diminution du pH résultant de la fermentation du glucose plutôt qu’à un effet direct de ce sucre. Cette régulation des facteurs de virulence par le pH acide est probablement un élément favorable au processus de colonisation de l’hôte. Ces différentes analyses ont également permis l’identification de facteurs de virulence potentiels, qui devront être caractérisés par la suite. / Clostridium difficile, a gram-positive spore-forming, anaerobic bacterium, is the etiological agent of pseudomembranous colitis and of many cases of nosocomial diarrhea. The main risk factor is the use of antibiotics that alters the intestinal microbiota, predisposing to C. difficile intestinal colonization. C. difficile pathogenicity is mediated mainly by its A and B toxins, secreted after host colonization that involves various surface proteins, including different adhesins and proteolytic enzymes as the cysteine protease Cwp84.We sought to analyze the localization and the maturation process of the proteaseCwp84. We showed that the recombinant protein Cwp8430-803, purified as zymogen form, presents a particular maturation process including consecutive cleavages, leading to the mature form of 47 kDa. This protease has a proteolytic activity against the fibronectin. Two identifiable forms of the protease were found to be associated in the bacteria: a form of about 80 kDa and a cleaved one of 47 kDa, identified as the mature protease. They were found mainly in the bacterial cell surface fractions, and weakly in the extracellular fraction. The 80 kDa protein was non covalently associated to the S-layer proteins, while the 47 kDa form was found to be tightly associated with the underlying cell wall. Our data supported that the anchoring of the Cwp84 47 kDa form is presumably due to a re-association of the secreted protein.We also studied the regulation of virulence factors depending of environmental conditions that mimic those encountered by the bacterium in the digestive tract. We showed that an acidic pH affects the expression and the proteolytic process of Cwp84. The mature form was only recovered with an acidic pH. Proteomic and transcriptomic analysis of some surface proteins involved in colonization revealed that their expression was increased in media containing glucose. However, this regulation is probably related to the decrease in pH resulting from fermentation of glucose, rather than a direct effect of glucose. The acidic pH could lead in vivo to modulation of virulence factors expression and is probably a favorable feature in the colonisation process. We also identified new surface associated-proteins, that could represent potential virulence factors; they will be characterized later.