The increasing levels of comfort have caused an increased electricity consumption over the last couple of years, leading to an increase in carbon dioxide emissions. At the same time, the interest and awareness regarding sustainability and climate change is growing, imposing a pressure on companies to incorporate sustainable businessmodels in their business. While the new levels of comfort might be difficult to change, bringing awareness to one's consumption and its' impact is still possible and can bedone through an Eco-Feedback Technology. However, this requires an understanding of the users' environmental consciousness and willingness to adapt their behaviour. To understand the effect that the environmental consciousness has on the design of an Eco-Feedback Technology and the risks and benefits said technology may pose on abusiness, interviews were conducted and a survey was distributed to gain an understanding of the environmental consciousness of the users of an video creationservice. The results were analysed using theoretical frameworks concerning environmental consciousness and the value-action gap. Additionally, experiments were conducted to calculate the environmental impact of the video creation process. The results indicated a high overall environmental consciousness amongst the users. However, the consciousness was found to be lower regarding the impact of electricity consumption and video creation. This suggests that the consciousness is dependent on the context of the users and the three aspects of consciousness should be viewed separately too, upon which the Eco-Feedback Technology should be adapted. Additionally, the users were not fully convinced an increased awareness would cause a behavioural change, suggesting a gap between attitude and action. The two mainbarriers for the gap were identified as lack of information and shift of responsibility which should be targeted by the Eco-Feedback Technology / Den ökande nivån av komfort i samhället är en av orsakerna till en ökning av elektricitetanvändningen de senaste åren, vilket har lett till ökade koldioxidutsläpp. Samtidigt växer intresset och medvetenheten gällande hållbarhet och klimatförändringar i samhället vilket sätter press på företag att integrera hållbara affärsmodeller i företaget. Trots att den ökade komfortnivån kan vara svår att förändra går det ändå att öka medvetenheten kring ens konsumtion och dess effekter, vilket är möjligt genom en Eko-Feedback Teknologi. Detta kräver dock en uppfattning av användares miljömedvetenhet och vilja att förändra deras beteende. För att undersöka effekten av miljömedvetenhet på designen av en Eko-FeedbackTeknologi samt eventuella risker och möjligheter som teknologin kan utgöra har intervjuer utförts och en enkät distribuerats för att få en förståelse för miljömedvetenheten hos användare av en tjänst för videoskapande. Resultaten analyserades med hjälp av teoretiska ramverk angående miljömedvetenhet och valueactiongap. Dessutom utfördes experiment för att beräkna och uppskatta miljöpåverkan av att skapa och rendera en video. Resultaten indikerade en hög övergripande miljömedvetenhet hos användarna. Däremot var medvetenheten gällande påverkan av elektricitetkonsumtion och videoskapande lägre. Detta föreslår att medvetenheten beror på sammanhanget avanvändarna och att de tre delarna av medvetenhet bör även analyseras separat utifrånvilket Eko-Feedback Teknologin ska anpassas. Dessutom var användarna inte övertygande om att en ökad medvetenhet skulle leda till en förändring i deras beteende gällande videoskapande, vilket föreslår ett gap mellan attityd och beteende. Studien identifierade två huvudbarriärer för gapet; brist på information och ansvarsförskjutning;som båda bör bemötas av Eko-Feedback Teknologin.

[FR] L'énergie photovoltaïque se présente comme une solution primordiale dans la lutte contre le réchauffement climatique. Malgré la maturité et la fiabilité de la technologie des cellules en silicium cristallin, les défis liés à la purification énergivore du silicium restent un obstacle coûteux. Dans cette optique, les pérovskites halogénées, notamment le FAPbI3, se profilent comme des alternatives prometteuses au silicium en raison de leur capacité à être synthétisées à faible coût à température ambiante, tout en présentant des propriétés optiques et électroniques attractives. Cependant, l'instabilité des pérovskites en contact avec l'air ambiant constitue un obstacle majeur à leur utilisation comme couche absorbante. Pour surmonter ce défi, une approche a consisté à modifier la composition chimique des pérovskites en utilisant la technique du spin-coating. L'étude a révélé que les pérovskites mixtes contenant de l'iodure (I) et du brome (Br), tels que le FAPbI2Br et le FAPbBr2I, offrent un compromis intéressant entre stabilité et bande interdite. Contrairement au FAPbI3, qui perd ses propriétés optiques après un certain temps en conditions ambiantes, ces pérovskites mixtes conservent leur capacité d'absorption dans le visible même après vieillissement. De plus, le FAPbBr2I s'est avéré environ trois fois plus photoluminescent que le FAPbI3, suggérant une conversion plus efficace des photons absorbés en paires électron-trou, ce qui en fait un candidat attractif pour les applications photovoltaïques. Cependant, il convient de noter que le FAPbBr2I présente un gap énergétique trop large pour de telles applications. Pour remédier à cette limitation, le dopage du FAPbBr2I avec du bismuth a été étudié, montrant une réduction significative du gap énergétique avec l'augmentation de la concentration en bismuth. Néanmoins, il a été observé que les photons émis par photoluminescence avaient une énergie supérieure à celle des photons absorbés, ce qui pourrait être dû à la dissipation de la chaleur dans le réseau cristallin. Ce décalage anti-Stokes nécessite une enquête plus approfondie. / [ES] La energía fotovoltaica se presenta como una solución clave en la lucha contra el calentamiento global. A pesar de la madurez y confiabilidad de la tecnología de células de silicio cristalino, los desafíos de la purificación de silicio intensiva en energía siguen siendo un obstáculo costoso. Con esto en mente, las perovskitas halogenadas, especialmente FAPbI3, están emergiendo como alternativas prometedoras al silicio debido a su capacidad de ser sintetizadas a bajo costo a temperatura ambiente, aunque tiene propiedades ópticas y electrónicas atractivas. Sin embargo, la inestabilidad de las perovskitas en contacto con el aire ambiente constituye un obstáculo importante para su uso como capa absorbente. Para superar este desafío, un enfoque fue modificar la composición química de las perovskitas utilizando la técnica de recubrimiento por centrifugación. El estudio reveló que las perovskitas mixtas que contienen yoduro (I) y bromo (Br), como FAPbI2Br y FAPbBr2I, ofrecen un compromiso interesante entre la estabilidad y la brecha de banda. A diferencia de FAPbI3, que pierde sus propiedades ópticas después de un cierto tiempo en condiciones ambientales, estas perovskitas mixtas conservan su capacidad de absorción en el visible incluso después del envejecimiento. Además, se encontró que FAPbBr2I era aproximadamente tres veces más fotoluminiscente que FAPbI3, lo que sugiere una conversión más eficiente de los fotones absorbidos en pares electrón-agujero, y, esto lo convierte en un candidato atractivo para aplicaciones fotovoltaicas. Sin embargo, debe tenerse en cuenta que FAPbBr2I tiene una brecha de energía más amplia que la ideal para tales aplicaciones. Para superar esta limitación, se estudió el dopaje de FAPbBr2I con bismuto, mostrando una reducción significativa de la brecha energética con el aumento de la concentración de bismuto. Sin embargo, se ha observado que los fotones emitidos por la fotoluminiscencia tienen una energía superior a la de los fotones absorbidos, y, esto podría deberse a la disipación de calor en la red cristalina. Este retraso anti-Stokes requiere más investigación. / [EN] Photovoltaic energy emerges as a crucial solution in the fight against climate change. Despite the maturity and reliability of crystalline silicon cell technology, challenges related to the energy-intensive purification of silicon remain a costly barrier. In this context, halide perovskites, especially FAPbI3, are emerging as promising alternatives to silicon due to their ability to be synthesized cost-effectively at room temperature while exhibiting attractive optical and electronic properties. However, the instability of perovskites in contact with ambient air poses a major obstacle to their use as an absorbing layer. To overcome this challenge, one approach has been to modify the chemical composition of perovskites using the spin-coating technique. The study revealed that misted perovskites containing iodide (I) and bromide (Br), such as FAPbI2Br and FAPbBr2I, offer an interesting compromise between stability and bandgap. Unlike FAPbI3, which loses its optical properties after some time under ambient conditions, these misted perovskites retain their absorption capacity in the visible range even after aging. Furthermore, FAPbBr2I was found to be approximately three times more photoluminescent than FAPbI3, suggesting a more efficient conversion of absorbed photons into electron-hole pairs, making it an attractive candidate for photovoltaic applications. However, it is worth noting that FAPbBr2I has a wider energy gap than ideal for such applications. To address this limitation, doping FAPbBr2I with bismuth was studied, showing a significant reduction in the energy gap with increasing bismuth concentration. Nevertheless, it was observed that the photons emitted by photoluminescence had higher energy than those absorbed, which could be due to heat dissipation in the crystal lattice. This anti-Stokes shift requires further investigation. / Abdoulaye, T. (2024). Etude de stabilité des pérovskites aux halogénures mixtes plombate de Formamidinium FAPbX3 avec X={ Cl,Br,I} [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/203190

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Biochemistry / Dolores J. Takemoto / Exposure to oxidative stress leads to accumulation of reactive oxygen species and this stimulates protective cellular functions as a compensatory response to prevent the spread of apoptotic signal and prevent cell death. The purpose of this dissertation is to understand the importance of PKCγ activation and regulation of the retinal gap junction protein Cx50, and what role PKCγ plays in this neuro-protective effect. Through electron microscopy we were able to show that PKCγ knockout mice retinas had incomplete cellular organization in the outer plexiform layer (OPL) of the retina, the layer of retina where Cx50 plays an important role in retinal cellular synapses. Electroretinograms confirmed that this structural disorganization also led to loss of functional response to light stimuli in PKCγ knockout mice retinas. In vivo exposure to 100% hyperbaric oxygen (HBO) caused significant degradation of the retina in knockout mice compared to control mice. Thicknesses of the inner and nuclear and ganglion cell layers were increased, with complete disruption of OPL in PKCγ KO mice retinas. Damage to the outer segments of the photoreceptor layer and ganglion cell layer was significantly more apparent in the central retinas of HBO-treated knockout mice. Cx50 immunolabeling showed significant reduction to HBO treatment of PKCγ control mice retinas, HBO treatment failed to produce reduction of Cx50 immunolabeling in KO mice retinas. In the R28 retinal cell line, PKCγ enzyme was shown to be activated by phorbol ester (TPA) and hydrogen peroxide. This resulted in translocation to the cellular membrane as confirmed by western blot and confocal microscopy. Suppression of PKCγ by siRNA rendered R28 cells more sensitive to oxidative stress-induced cell apoptosis, the process of apoptosis started earlier, and this resulted in cell death. R28 treatment with phorbol esters and hydrogen peroxide led to reduction in gap junction activity and Cx50 gap junction cell disassembly. This dissertation shows that PKCγ plays an important role in structural organization of retina and has a neuro-protective effect in response to oxidative stress, in part because of its control of Cx50.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Biochemistry / Dolores J. Takemoto / Connexin proteins are the principle structural components of gap junction channels that connect the cytoplasm of two cells and maintain direct intercellular communication through the exchange of ions, small molecules and cellular metabolites. Colocalization and tissue-specific expression of diverse connexin molecules are reported to occur in a variety of organs. Impairment of gap junctional intercellular communication, caused by mutations, gain of function or loss of function of connexins, is involved in a number of diseases including the development of cancer. Here the functions of a gap junction protein, connexin46 (Cx46), have been investigated in two hypoxic tissues, lens and breast tumor. We show that human breast cancer cells, MCF-7 and breast tumor tissues express connexin46 (Cx46) and it plays a critical role in protecting cells against hypoxia-induced death. Interestingly, I find that Cx46 is upregulated in MCF-7 breast cancer cells and human breast cancer tumors. Downregulation of Cx46 by siRNA promotes cell death of human lens epithelial cells (HLEC) and MCF-7 cells under hypoxic conditions. Furthermore, direct injection of anti-Cx46 siRNA into xenograft tumors prevents tumor growth in nude mice. Our result suggests that both normal hypoxic tissue (lens) and adaptive hypoxic tissue (breast tumor) utilize the same protein, Cx46, as a protective strategy against hypoxia. In the last part of the dissertation, we show that over expression of Cx46 induces the degradation of another connexin, connexin43, in rabbit lens epithelial NN1003A cells. Over expression of Cx46 increases ubiquitination of Cx43. Moreover, the Cx46-induced Cx43 degradation is counteracted by inhibitors of proteasome. Taken together, these data indicate that the degradation of Cx43, upon Cx46 over expression, is mediated by the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. I also provide evidence that that C-terminal tail of Cx46 is essential to induce degradation of Cx43. Therefore, our study shows that Cx46 has a novel function in the regulation of Cx43 turnover in addition to its conventional role as a gap junction protein. This may contribute to protection from hypoxia in both the lens and tumors.

Low-energy buildings have, in recent years, gained attention and moved towards a large-scale introduction in the residential sector. During this process, national and international criteria for energy use in buildings have become stricter and the European Union has through the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive imposed on member states to adapt their building regulations for ‘Nearly Zero Energy Buildings’, which by 2021 should be standard for new buildings. With a primary focus on new terraced and detached houses, this thesis analyses how the concept of low-energy buildings may be further developed to reduce the energy use in the residential sector. The main attention is on the technical performance in terms of indoor climate and heat consumption as well as on the market diffusion of low-energy buildings into the housing market. A multidisciplinary approach is applied, which here means that the concept of low-energy buildings is investigated from different perspectives as well as on different system levels. The thesis thus encompasses methods from both engineering and social sciences and approaches the studied areas through literature surveys, interviews, assessments and simulations. The thesis reveals how an increased process integration of the building’s energy system can improve the thermal comfort in low-energy buildings. Moreover, it makes use of learning algorithms – in this case artificial neural networks – to study how the heat consumption can be predicted in a low-energy building in the Swedish climate. The thesis further focuses on the low-energy building as an element in our society and it provides a market diffusion analysis to gain understanding of the contextualisation process. In addition, it suggests possible approaches to increase the market share of low-energy buildings. / <p>QC 20140321</p>

Active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs), which are incorporated in different formulations, i.e. creams, gels, foams, etc., are applied to the skin for a therapeutic effect. This therapeutic effect could either be required in the top layer of the skin (topical drug delivery) or deeper layers to reach the blood capillaries (transdermal drug delivery). Transdermal delivery avoids oral administration route limitations, such as first pass metabolism which is the rapid clearance of the drug in the gastrointestinal tract and degradation by enzymes. This delivery targets the drugs to skin sites, where there are significant advantages which include: improved patient compliance, a steady drug delivery state, less frequent dosing, adverse effects are minimal, it is less invasive and issues with the gastrointestinal absorption are avoided by eliminating the first pass metabolism (Perrie et al., 2012:392). This type of delivery is not free from limitations even though the skin can be employed for targeted drug delivery and is a readily available and large accessible surface area for adsorption of drugs. The most upper layer of the human skin, the stratum corneum, which is a watertight barrier, offers defence against hazardous exterior materials such as fungi, allergens, viruses and other molecules. This indicates the stratum corneum controls the drug penetration of most drugs to permeate the skin barrier (Lam & Gambari, 2014:27). Pravastatin is hydrophilic and is a 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase inhibitor which inhibits cholesterol synthesis, a rate-limiting step, in the liver, thus decreasing the level of plasma low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) (Heath et al., 1998:42). It can also slow the progression of atherosclerosis and can lower the incident of coronary events (Haria & McTavish, 1997:299). The first aim of the study is to deliver pravastatin transdermally into the blood circulation. Currently, pravastatin is only administered in oral dosages and can cause highly negative adverse effects such as myopathy and increased liver enzymes. This increase in liver enzymes causes hepatotoxicity and therefore would be ideal if pravastatin could be delivered transdermally, as the first pass metabolic effect would be nullified and adverse effects would decrease drastically (Gadi et al., 2013:648). Prof JW Wiechers‟ Delivery Gap Principle was designed in attempt to effectively enhance transdermal drug delivery. This Delivery Gap Principle was incorporated in the computer programme he developed known as “Formulating for Efficacy” (FFE™). The transdermal delivery of suggested APIs, which in this case is pravastatin, when incorporated into a formulation, may be optimised transdermally. The FFE™ computer programme suggests that the oil phase can be optimised, which in turn leads to better permeation through the skin to the target site (transdermal). The formula can be manipulated to reach desired polarity. The second aim of this in vitro study was to investigate the implementation of Wiechers‟ Delivery Gap Principle in a semi-solid dosage form, for the transdermal delivery of pravastatin sodium (2%). Six formulations, of which three were cream and three were emulgel formulations incorporated with pravastatin sodium (2%), were formulated. Each formulation had a different polarity, i.e. hydrophilic cream (HC) and emulgel (HE), lipophilic cream (LC) and emulgel (LE) and optimised cream (OC) and emulgel (OE). A high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method was developed and validated to analyse the concentration of pravastatin. Both the octanol-buffer distribution coefficient (log D) and the aqueous solubility of pravastatin were determined. For the API to permeate through the skin into the blood circulation, certain physicochemical properties are important and according to Naik et al (2000:321), there are specific ideal limits for the API in the formulations which include log D (1 to 3) and a aqueous solubility of >1 mg/ml. The aqueous solubility of 197.5 mg/ml in phosphate buffer solution (PBS) (pH 7.4) at a temperature of 32 °C indicated penetration was favourable (Naik et al., 2000:321), whilst the log D value of -0.703 indicated the API was unfavourable for skin penetration (Naik et al., 2000:321). Membrane release studies were conducted using a synthetic membrane to determine whether pravastatin was released from the six formulations each containing 2% pravastatin prior to diffusion studies with. The OE yielded the highest median flux value (7.175 μg/cm2.h), followed the by LE (6.401 μg/cm2.h), HE (6.355 μg/cm2.h), HC (5.061 μg/cm2.h), OC (4.297 μg/cm2.h) and lastly, LC (3.115 μg/cm2.h). By looking at the aforementioned data values, it was concluded that the emulgels performed better than the cream formulations when median flux values were compared. By using dermatomed excised female Caucasian skin, an execution of Franz cell diffusion studies were performed over a period of 12 h, followed by a tape-stripping experiment to determine which semi-solid formulation delivered pravastatin best on the skin and the results of the different polarity formulations were compared. The median amount per area which permeated through the skin after 12 h was as follows: the OE formulation (2.578 μg/cm2) depicted the highest median amount per area, followed by OC (1.449 μg/cm2), HC (0.434 μg/cm2), LE (0.121 μg/cm2), HE (0.055 μg/cm2) and lastly LC (0.000 μg/cm2). These results validate Wiechers` theory that when the oil phase is optimised, with regard to the same polarity as the skin, permeation will be enhanced (Wiechers, 2011). During both the membrane studies and the skin diffusion studies it was evident the emulgel formulations performed better and pravastatin permeated better than the cream formulations. When skin diffusion and membrane median data values were compared, it was evident in both the membrane release studies and the skin diffusion studies that OE yielded the highest median values and LC the lowest median values. It was clear that all six different formulations released pravastatin, but LC displayed no permeation into the systemic circulation (receptor phase). The data of the different polarity formulations which yielded the best results with regards to median concentrations within the stratum corneum-epidermis and epidermis-dermis, were identified and are: within the stratum corneum-epidermis, HE (1.448 μg/ml) yielded the highest median concentration pravastatin, followed by LE (1.301 μg/ml), LC (0.676 μg/ml), HC (0.505 μg/ml), OE (0.505 μg/ml) and lastly OC (0.400 μg/ml). As emulgels (hydrophilic) contain more water than creams (lipophilic), the penetration enhancement effect can be explained by hydration, since the water hydrated the skin leading the lipids to open and the stratum corneum to swell (Williams & Barry, 2004:606). Therefore more API could permeate into the skin. Within the epidermis-dermis the highest median concentration median was yielded by OE (0.849 μg/ml), followed by LC (0.572 μg/ml), HC (0.524 μg/ml), OC (0.355 μg/ml), HE (0.309 μg/ml) and lastly LE (0.138 μg/ml). Different polarity formulations permeating the viable epidermis could be a result of the solubility characteristics of the formulations. It contained both lipid properties (formulations contained oil content), leading to permeation through the stratum corneum and aqueous properties, which lead to diffusion into the underlying layers of the epidermis (Perrie et al., 2012:392). According to Perrie (2012:392), formulations that need to be delivered transdermally, must permeate through the lipophilic stratum corneum and thereafter the hydrophilic dermal layers to reach the blood circulation, which means formulations must consist of both lipophilic and aqueous solubility properties. When comparing the stratum corneum-epidermis (lipophilic) with the epidermis-dermis (more hydrophilic) and receptor phase (hydrophilic; systemic circulation), it is evident that all formulations had lipophilic and hydrophilic properties, as the API permeated through the stratum corneum and penetrated the deeper layers of the skin (viable epidermis) When all polarity formulations were compared, i.e. optimised, hydrophilic and lipophilic, it was observed that the optimised formulations depicted the highest median concentration values in the receptor phase (skin diffusion), but lowest median concentration in stratum corneum-epidermis, therefore the optimised formulation permeated best through the stratum corneum-epidermis. The reason for this could be that the optimised formulations had the same polarity as the skin (17, 8, 8), thus permeating through the skin to the receptor fluid more efficiently (Wiechers, 2011). It was observed that LC penetrated both stratum corneum-epidermis and epidermis-dermis, but did not permeate through the skin to the receptor fluid (systemic circulation), making it a good delivery vehicle for topical delivery. Overall when the emulgel and cream formulations are compared, according to their ability to deliver pravastatin transdermally, it is evident the pravastatin diffused more from the emulgel formulations than the cream formulations. This could be due to the fact that emulgels are more hydrophilic as they contain more water, resulting in the emulgels diffusing to the deeper layers of the skin (more hydrophilic viable epidermis) (Benson, 2005:28). All formulations contained not only aqueous (hydrophilic) but also lipid (lipophilic) solubility properties, therefore making it lipophilic enough to permeate the stratum corneum and hydrophilic enough to penetrate to deeper skin layers (viable epidermis) (Perrie et al., 2012:392). All formulations could still permeate the viable epidermis despite different polarities being used and all were appropriate candidates, although some were more suitable than others. The understanding from this study is that: * pravastatin could be delivered topically by all formulations, * the best formulation to reach the systemic formulation is the optimised emulgel, * the best formulation to deliver pravastatin topically is the hydrophilic emulgel. / MSc (Pharmaceutics), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

The aim of this research was to identify where the expectation gap of IT competencies lies, between accountancy trainees, SAICA and employers. Existing findings and empirical research findings from this study were compared to the prescribed competencies of the professional body, SAICA, to identify where the gap lies and to suggest possible action plans to overcome it. The findings of this study suggest that the availability of technology and IT at schools is limited. Employers identified an overall expectation gap where trainees are not able to apply the basic IT competencies that should have been acquired at university to the practical working environment. The data collected also identified that IT competencies are not being taught at the same level at different universities through the different responses of students, lecturers and trainees, which leads to inconsistent exposure of accountancy trainees to IT prior to their traineeship. As IT competencies have a significant impact on the every-day working life of such a trainee, employers and SAICA expect that students would have obtained basic IT competencies before the start of their traineeship. / MCom (Accountancy)--North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, 2015

Introduction: From a legal point of view, gender-based discrimination is not condoned in the workplace. However, perceptions that such discrimination exists persist. Understanding the extent and nature of the phenomenon may contribute to the management thereof. Aim: The aim of this research was to report on the nature and level of workplace gender-based discrimination from the perspective of managers and employees, as well as by making use of objective measures. Method: Interviews were conducted with 75 managers focusing on the prevalence of gender-based discrimination in specific organisational processes. Furthermore, 145 managers and 1 740 employees completed questionnaires on this topic. Results: Managers reported flaws in all the organisational processes investigated. According to these managers, some processes showed a pro-female bias whilst others displayed a pro-male bias. More female than male employees reported discriminatory incidents at work, but both groups reported gender-based discrimination. Gender-based discrimination was the most prominent form of discrimination reported by women. Some female respondents reported pro-male and others pro-female discrimination. The same pattern applied to men. No statistically significant gender wage gap was found and the salaries of males and females were not differentially affected by qualifications, training, workplace experience or family responsibility. Managers and employees concurred that gender-based discrimination was the primary source of discrimination in the workplace, and they reported similarly on the consequences of this problem. Conclusions and recommendations: Managers are aware of discrimination in organisational processes. This awareness can be used to initiate programmes aimed at minimising discrimination. Both males and females are exposed to gender-based discrimination and they report similar consequences. This suggests that interventions should be directed at both groups. The different, and often opposing, reports provided by the male and female groups support the social identity theory and conceptions of group-serving bias. From the objective data it can be concluded that perceptions of being discriminated against are the result of psycho-social processes and not necessarily the result of justifiable biographical differences. / PhD (Business Administration), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs), which are incorporated in different formulations, i.e. creams, gels, foams, etc., are applied to the skin for a therapeutic effect. This therapeutic effect could either be required in the top layer of the skin (topical drug delivery) or deeper layers to reach the blood capillaries (transdermal drug delivery). Transdermal delivery avoids oral administration route limitations, such as first pass metabolism which is the rapid clearance of the drug in the gastrointestinal tract and degradation by enzymes. This delivery targets the drugs to skin sites, where there are significant advantages which include: improved patient compliance, a steady drug delivery state, less frequent dosing, adverse effects are minimal, it is less invasive and issues with the gastrointestinal absorption are avoided by eliminating the first pass metabolism (Perrie et al., 2012:392). This type of delivery is not free from limitations even though the skin can be employed for targeted drug delivery and is a readily available and large accessible surface area for adsorption of drugs. The most upper layer of the human skin, the stratum corneum, which is a watertight barrier, offers defence against hazardous exterior materials such as fungi, allergens, viruses and other molecules. This indicates the stratum corneum controls the drug penetration of most drugs to permeate the skin barrier (Lam & Gambari, 2014:27). Pravastatin is hydrophilic and is a 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase inhibitor which inhibits cholesterol synthesis, a rate-limiting step, in the liver, thus decreasing the level of plasma low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) (Heath et al., 1998:42). It can also slow the progression of atherosclerosis and can lower the incident of coronary events (Haria & McTavish, 1997:299). The first aim of the study is to deliver pravastatin transdermally into the blood circulation. Currently, pravastatin is only administered in oral dosages and can cause highly negative adverse effects such as myopathy and increased liver enzymes. This increase in liver enzymes causes hepatotoxicity and therefore would be ideal if pravastatin could be delivered transdermally, as the first pass metabolic effect would be nullified and adverse effects would decrease drastically (Gadi et al., 2013:648). Prof JW Wiechers‟ Delivery Gap Principle was designed in attempt to effectively enhance transdermal drug delivery. This Delivery Gap Principle was incorporated in the computer programme he developed known as “Formulating for Efficacy” (FFE™). The transdermal delivery of suggested APIs, which in this case is pravastatin, when incorporated into a formulation, may be optimised transdermally. The FFE™ computer programme suggests that the oil phase can be optimised, which in turn leads to better permeation through the skin to the target site (transdermal). The formula can be manipulated to reach desired polarity. The second aim of this in vitro study was to investigate the implementation of Wiechers‟ Delivery Gap Principle in a semi-solid dosage form, for the transdermal delivery of pravastatin sodium (2%). Six formulations, of which three were cream and three were emulgel formulations incorporated with pravastatin sodium (2%), were formulated. Each formulation had a different polarity, i.e. hydrophilic cream (HC) and emulgel (HE), lipophilic cream (LC) and emulgel (LE) and optimised cream (OC) and emulgel (OE). A high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method was developed and validated to analyse the concentration of pravastatin. Both the octanol-buffer distribution coefficient (log D) and the aqueous solubility of pravastatin were determined. For the API to permeate through the skin into the blood circulation, certain physicochemical properties are important and according to Naik et al (2000:321), there are specific ideal limits for the API in the formulations which include log D (1 to 3) and a aqueous solubility of >1 mg/ml. The aqueous solubility of 197.5 mg/ml in phosphate buffer solution (PBS) (pH 7.4) at a temperature of 32 °C indicated penetration was favourable (Naik et al., 2000:321), whilst the log D value of -0.703 indicated the API was unfavourable for skin penetration (Naik et al., 2000:321). Membrane release studies were conducted using a synthetic membrane to determine whether pravastatin was released from the six formulations each containing 2% pravastatin prior to diffusion studies with. The OE yielded the highest median flux value (7.175 μg/cm2.h), followed the by LE (6.401 μg/cm2.h), HE (6.355 μg/cm2.h), HC (5.061 μg/cm2.h), OC (4.297 μg/cm2.h) and lastly, LC (3.115 μg/cm2.h). By looking at the aforementioned data values, it was concluded that the emulgels performed better than the cream formulations when median flux values were compared. By using dermatomed excised female Caucasian skin, an execution of Franz cell diffusion studies were performed over a period of 12 h, followed by a tape-stripping experiment to determine which semi-solid formulation delivered pravastatin best on the skin and the results of the different polarity formulations were compared. The median amount per area which permeated through the skin after 12 h was as follows: the OE formulation (2.578 μg/cm2) depicted the highest median amount per area, followed by OC (1.449 μg/cm2), HC (0.434 μg/cm2), LE (0.121 μg/cm2), HE (0.055 μg/cm2) and lastly LC (0.000 μg/cm2). These results validate Wiechers` theory that when the oil phase is optimised, with regard to the same polarity as the skin, permeation will be enhanced (Wiechers, 2011). During both the membrane studies and the skin diffusion studies it was evident the emulgel formulations performed better and pravastatin permeated better than the cream formulations. When skin diffusion and membrane median data values were compared, it was evident in both the membrane release studies and the skin diffusion studies that OE yielded the highest median values and LC the lowest median values. It was clear that all six different formulations released pravastatin, but LC displayed no permeation into the systemic circulation (receptor phase). The data of the different polarity formulations which yielded the best results with regards to median concentrations within the stratum corneum-epidermis and epidermis-dermis, were identified and are: within the stratum corneum-epidermis, HE (1.448 μg/ml) yielded the highest median concentration pravastatin, followed by LE (1.301 μg/ml), LC (0.676 μg/ml), HC (0.505 μg/ml), OE (0.505 μg/ml) and lastly OC (0.400 μg/ml). As emulgels (hydrophilic) contain more water than creams (lipophilic), the penetration enhancement effect can be explained by hydration, since the water hydrated the skin leading the lipids to open and the stratum corneum to swell (Williams & Barry, 2004:606). Therefore more API could permeate into the skin. Within the epidermis-dermis the highest median concentration median was yielded by OE (0.849 μg/ml), followed by LC (0.572 μg/ml), HC (0.524 μg/ml), OC (0.355 μg/ml), HE (0.309 μg/ml) and lastly LE (0.138 μg/ml). Different polarity formulations permeating the viable epidermis could be a result of the solubility characteristics of the formulations. It contained both lipid properties (formulations contained oil content), leading to permeation through the stratum corneum and aqueous properties, which lead to diffusion into the underlying layers of the epidermis (Perrie et al., 2012:392). According to Perrie (2012:392), formulations that need to be delivered transdermally, must permeate through the lipophilic stratum corneum and thereafter the hydrophilic dermal layers to reach the blood circulation, which means formulations must consist of both lipophilic and aqueous solubility properties. When comparing the stratum corneum-epidermis (lipophilic) with the epidermis-dermis (more hydrophilic) and receptor phase (hydrophilic; systemic circulation), it is evident that all formulations had lipophilic and hydrophilic properties, as the API permeated through the stratum corneum and penetrated the deeper layers of the skin (viable epidermis) When all polarity formulations were compared, i.e. optimised, hydrophilic and lipophilic, it was observed that the optimised formulations depicted the highest median concentration values in the receptor phase (skin diffusion), but lowest median concentration in stratum corneum-epidermis, therefore the optimised formulation permeated best through the stratum corneum-epidermis. The reason for this could be that the optimised formulations had the same polarity as the skin (17, 8, 8), thus permeating through the skin to the receptor fluid more efficiently (Wiechers, 2011). It was observed that LC penetrated both stratum corneum-epidermis and epidermis-dermis, but did not permeate through the skin to the receptor fluid (systemic circulation), making it a good delivery vehicle for topical delivery. Overall when the emulgel and cream formulations are compared, according to their ability to deliver pravastatin transdermally, it is evident the pravastatin diffused more from the emulgel formulations than the cream formulations. This could be due to the fact that emulgels are more hydrophilic as they contain more water, resulting in the emulgels diffusing to the deeper layers of the skin (more hydrophilic viable epidermis) (Benson, 2005:28). All formulations contained not only aqueous (hydrophilic) but also lipid (lipophilic) solubility properties, therefore making it lipophilic enough to permeate the stratum corneum and hydrophilic enough to penetrate to deeper skin layers (viable epidermis) (Perrie et al., 2012:392). All formulations could still permeate the viable epidermis despite different polarities being used and all were appropriate candidates, although some were more suitable than others. The understanding from this study is that: * pravastatin could be delivered topically by all formulations, * the best formulation to reach the systemic formulation is the optimised emulgel, * the best formulation to deliver pravastatin topically is the hydrophilic emulgel. / MSc (Pharmaceutics), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

The aim of this research was to identify where the expectation gap of IT competencies lies, between accountancy trainees, SAICA and employers. Existing findings and empirical research findings from this study were compared to the prescribed competencies of the professional body, SAICA, to identify where the gap lies and to suggest possible action plans to overcome it. The findings of this study suggest that the availability of technology and IT at schools is limited. Employers identified an overall expectation gap where trainees are not able to apply the basic IT competencies that should have been acquired at university to the practical working environment. The data collected also identified that IT competencies are not being taught at the same level at different universities through the different responses of students, lecturers and trainees, which leads to inconsistent exposure of accountancy trainees to IT prior to their traineeship. As IT competencies have a significant impact on the every-day working life of such a trainee, employers and SAICA expect that students would have obtained basic IT competencies before the start of their traineeship. / MCom (Accountancy)--North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, 2015