Many imprinted genes are necessary for normal human development. Approximately 70 imprinted genes have been identified in humans. I developed a novel approach to identify candidate imprinted genes in humans using the premise that imprinted genes are often associated with nearby parent-of-origin-specific DNA differentially methylated regions (DMRs). I identified parent-of-origin-specific DMRs using sodium bisulfite-based DNA (CpG) methylation profiling of uniparental tissues, mature cystic ovarian teratoma (MCT) and androgenetic complete hydatidiform mole (AnCHM), and biparental tissues, blood and placenta. In support of this approach, the CpG methylation profiling led to the identification of parent-of-origin-specific differentially methylated CpG sites (DMCpGs) in known parent-of-origin-specific DMRs. I found new DMRs for known imprinted genes NAP1L5 and ZNF597. Most importantly, I discovered many new DMCpGs, which were associated with nearby genes, i.e., candidate imprinted genes. Allelic expression analyses of one candidate imprinted gene, AXL, suggested polymorphic imprinting of AXL in human blood.

Pubertal timing displays wide, normally distributed variation in a healthy population of sexually maturing adolescents. However, like many complex traits, factors contributing to the variation are not well understood. Epigenetic regulation may contribute to some of the population variation. The role that epigenetics, specifically DNA methylation and histone acetylation, may play in regulating pubertal timing was investigated in C57BL/6 female mice: investigating whether population variation in pubertal timing among inbred mice could be explained by environmental factors; whether perturbing the epigenome using a histone deacetylase inhibitor or methyl-donor would alter pubertal timing; and examining genome-wide methylation patterns in hypothalami of early versus late maturing mice. Results demonstrate that measurable micro-environmental factors have only negligible effects on pubertal timing; pubertal timing was significantly altered by administration of epigenetic modifying agents; differences in methylation patterns are subtle. This initial evidence supports the involvement of epigenetic mechanisms in regulating pubertal timing.

Many imprinted genes are necessary for normal human development. Approximately 70 imprinted genes have been identified in humans. I developed a novel approach to identify candidate imprinted genes in humans using the premise that imprinted genes are often associated with nearby parent-of-origin-specific DNA differentially methylated regions (DMRs). I identified parent-of-origin-specific DMRs using sodium bisulfite-based DNA (CpG) methylation profiling of uniparental tissues, mature cystic ovarian teratoma (MCT) and androgenetic complete hydatidiform mole (AnCHM), and biparental tissues, blood and placenta. In support of this approach, the CpG methylation profiling led to the identification of parent-of-origin-specific differentially methylated CpG sites (DMCpGs) in known parent-of-origin-specific DMRs. I found new DMRs for known imprinted genes NAP1L5 and ZNF597. Most importantly, I discovered many new DMCpGs, which were associated with nearby genes, i.e., candidate imprinted genes. Allelic expression analyses of one candidate imprinted gene, AXL, suggested polymorphic imprinting of AXL in human blood.

Pubertal timing displays wide, normally distributed variation in a healthy population of sexually maturing adolescents. However, like many complex traits, factors contributing to the variation are not well understood. Epigenetic regulation may contribute to some of the population variation. The role that epigenetics, specifically DNA methylation and histone acetylation, may play in regulating pubertal timing was investigated in C57BL/6 female mice: investigating whether population variation in pubertal timing among inbred mice could be explained by environmental factors; whether perturbing the epigenome using a histone deacetylase inhibitor or methyl-donor would alter pubertal timing; and examining genome-wide methylation patterns in hypothalami of early versus late maturing mice. Results demonstrate that measurable micro-environmental factors have only negligible effects on pubertal timing; pubertal timing was significantly altered by administration of epigenetic modifying agents; differences in methylation patterns are subtle. This initial evidence supports the involvement of epigenetic mechanisms in regulating pubertal timing.

Hutchinson-Gilford Progeria Syndrome is described as a series of mutations within the lamin A gene leading to the accumulation of progerin in the nucleus, contributing to premature aging and affecting the epigenetic control. Epigenetic control, such as DNA methylation, relies on DNA methyltransferase enzymes. In human cells, heat shock (HS) leads to the formation of nuclear stress bodies (nSBs); ribonucleoprotein aggregates of Sat III RNA and RNA-binding proteins. The objectives of this study were to determine if epigenetic status induces varying responses to HS and assess the variability of nuclear proteins in similar conditions. Results show epigenetic modifications do not prevent a stress response; however the extent may be affected. In addition the functions of most nuclear antigens were not affected. It is most likely the sum of interactions at the inner nuclear membrane and nuclear lamina interface that result in nuclear strength pertaining to lamin A.

En mamíferos, así como en plantas, mutaciones en AND helicasas/ATPasas del la família SNF2, no solo afectan a la estructura de la cromatina, sino que también afectan al patrón global de la metilación del ADN. Sugiriendo una relación funcional entre la estructura de la cromatina y la epigenética. El complejo NuRD, el cual posee una ATPasa de la familía SNF2, está relacionado con la represión de la transcripción y en el remodelamiento de la cromatina. Nuestro laboratorio demostró que la proteína leucémica PML-RARα reprime la transcripción de sus genes diana por el reclutamiento de DNMTs y el complejo PRC2. En esta tesis, demostramos una relación directa del complejo NuRD en la represión génica y en los cambios epigenéticos en la leucemia promielocítica aguda (APL). Mostramos que PML-RARα se une y recluta NuRD a sus genes diana, incluyendo el gen supresor de tumores RAR2, facilitando que el complejo de Polycomb se reclute y metile la lisina 27 de la histona H3. Tratamiento con Acido Retinóico (RA), el qual se utiliza en pacientes, reduce la ocupación de NuRD en células leucémicas. Eliminando NuRD no solo provoca que las histonas no se deacetilen y que la cromatina no se compacte, sino que también provoca que tanto la metilación del ADN y de las histonas no se produzca, así como la represión génica del gen RAR2, favoreciendo la diferenciación celular. Nuestros resultados caracterizan un nuevo papel del complejo NuRD en el establecimiento de los patrones epigenéticos en APL, demostrando una relación esencial entre la estructura de la cromatina y epigenética durante el desarrollo de la leucemia, pudiéndose aplicar a la terapia de esta enfermedad. / In mammals, as in plants, mutations in SNF2-like DNA helicases/ATPases were shown to affect not only chromatin structure but also global methylation patterns, suggesting a potential functional link between chromatin structure and epigentic marks. The SNF2-like containing NuRD complex is involved in gene transcriptional repression and chromatin remodeling. We have previously shown that the leukemogenic protein PMLRARα represses target genes through recruitment of DNMTs and Polycomb complex. In this thesis, we demonstrate a direct role of the NuRD complex in aberrant gene repression and transmission of epigenetic repressive marks in acute promyelocytic leucemia (APL). We show that PML-RARα binds and recruits NuRD to target genes, including to the tumor-suppressor gene RAR2. In turn, the NuRD complex facilitates Polycomb binding and histone methylation at lysine 27. Retinoic acid treatment reduced the promoter occupancy of the NuRD complex. Knock-down of the NuRD complex in leukemic cells not only prevented histone deacetylation and chromatin compaction, but also impaired DNA and histone methylation as well as stable silencing, thus favoring cellular differentiation. These results unveil an important role for NuRD in the establishment of altered epigenetic marks in APL, demonstrating an essential link between chromatin structure and epigenetics in leukemogenesis that could be exploited for therapeutic intervention.

Στην παρούσα διδακτορική διατριβή δείχθηκε ότι το γονίδιο της ανθρώπινης καλλικρεΐνης 6 μπορεί να ενεργοποιηθεί φαρμακολογικά σε καρκινικές κυτταρικές σειρές μαστού και μελετήθηκε ο μοριακός μηχανισμός της ενεργοποίησης. Το cDNA της ανθρώπινης καλλικρεΐνης 6 αρχικά κλωνοποιήθηκε με την τεχνική της διαφορικής παράθεσης των mRNAs βάσει της υπερέκφρασης σε πρωτοπαθή όγκο μαστού σε σχέση με την πλήρη αποσιώπηση στην μετάστασή του στον πνεύμονα, καθώς και στις περισσότερες μεταστατικές καρκινικές σειρές μαστού και δείγματα ιστών. Λόγω της καταστολής της έκφρασής της σε μεταστατικούς όγκους του μαστού, θεωρήθηκε ότι η κωδικοποιούμενη πρωτεΐνη (hK6)-μια νέα σερινοπρωτεάση- θα μπορούσε να έχει ογκοκατασταλτική δράση. Πρόσφατα δεδομένα δείχθουν ότι η hK6 αντιπροσωπεύει έναν νέο μοριακό δείκτη του καρκίνου, αφού αυξημένες συγκεντρώσεις της στον ορό είναι διαγνωστικές για τον καρκίνο των ωοθηκών και μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν για την παρακολούθηση της θεραπευτικής αγωγής. Οι φυσιολογικές λειτουργίες της hK6 δεν έχουν βρεθεί. Πρόσφατα, αλλαγές στην έκφραση του γονιδίου KLK6 έχουν συσχετιστεί με την παθογένεση των πιο κοινών νευροεκφυλιστικών νόσων, όπως Alzheimer’s και Parkinson’s. Σημαντικό, είναι το γεγονός της αποικοδόμησης της μυελίνης από την hK6, που πιστοποιεί την συμμετοχή της στην σκλήρυνση κατά πλάκας. Για τους παραπάνω λόγους η hK6, καθώς και το γονίδιο KLK6 αποτελούν ένα σημαντικό θεραπευτικό στόχο. Στην παρούσα εργασία, δείχθηκε ότι οι μηχανισμοί που ρυθμίζουν την μεταγραφή καθώς και την ιστο-εξειδικευμένη έκφραση του γονιδίου KLK6 περιλαμβάνουν την δραστικότητα δύο υποκινητών. Επίσης κλωνοποιήθηκαν νέες ισομορφές του γονιδίου που προκύπτουν από εναλλακτικό μάτισμα και αντιστοιχούν στο 10-20% των KLK6 mRNAs. Προηγούμενη έρευνα δεν είχε παρατηρήσει εκτεταμένες γονιδιωματικές αλλαγές σε καρκινικούς όγκους στην γενετικό τόπο 19q13.4 που εδρεύει το γονίδιο KLK6, και σε συνδυασμό με την πιθανή ογκοκατασταλτική δράση της hK6, διερευνήθηκε η συμμετοχή επιγενετικών μηχανισμών στην αποσιώπηση της έκφρασης του γονιδίου KLK6. Κατεργασία των καρκινικών κυτταρικών σειρών μαστού T47D και MDA-MB-231 με το απομεθυλιωτικό αντιδραστήριο 5-αζα-2΄-δεοξυκυτιδίνη επανενεργοποίησε την έκφραση του γονιδίου KLK6. Η τριχοστατίνη Α, αναστολέας των αποακετυλασών των ιστονών, επανενεργοποίησε την έκφραση KLK6 μόνο στα MDA-MB-231 κύτταρα. Επίσης, βρήκαμε ότι η καταστολή της έκφρασης KLK6 στις καρκινικές κυτταρικές σειρές μαστού συνδέεται με την μεθυλίωση συγκεκριμένων δινουκλεοτιδικών αλληλουχιών CpGs που βρίσκονται στον εγγύς υποκινητή του γονιδίου και σε θέσεις πρόσδεσης του μεταγραφικού παράγοντα Sp1. Η αποσιώπηση της έκφρασης λαμβάνει χώρα με την πρόσδεση του εξαρτώμενου από μεθυλίωση μεταγραφικού καταστολέα MeCP2 και την δημιουργία ετεροχρωματινικής δομής λόγω αποακετυλίωσης των ιστονών. Επειδή η επιγενετική αποσιώπηση του γονιδίου KLK6 υποδηλώνει ογκοκατασταλτικό ρόλο στον καρκίνο του μαστού, διαμολύνθηκε σταθερά το KLK6 cDNA στην μεταστική σειρά MDA-MB-231 με σκοπό τη διαπίστωση του πιθανού αυτού ρόλου. Τα σταθερά διαμολυσμένα κύτταρα που προέκυψαν, είχαν μικρότερο ρυθμό πολλαπλασιασμού, ενώ δεν μπορούσαν να σχηματίσουν αποικίες σε μαλακό άγαρ. Συμπερασματικά στην παρούσα διατριβή δείχθηκε ότι το γονίδιο KLK6 αποτελεί πιθανό ογκοκατασταλτικό γονίδιο, που αποσιωπάται σε καρκινικές σειρές μαστού μέσω μεθυλίωσης του γονιδιωματικού DNA, καθώς και δημιουργίας ετεροχρωματινικής δομής στον εγγύς υποκινητή του. Η φαρμακολογική ενεργοποίηση της έκφρασης του γονιδίου KLK6 μέσω επιγενετικών φαρμάκων, είναι πιθανό να ανοίξει νέους δρόμους για την αντιμετώπιση του καρκίνου του μαστού. / In the present thesis it was shown that the human kallikrein 6 gene is pharmacologically modulated in breast cancer cell lines and the molecular mechanism accounting for the modulation was analyzed. The cDNA encoding human kallikrein 6 (protease M) was originally cloned by mRNA differential display as being over expressed in a primary breast tumor but completely inactivated in its lung metastasis, and in the majority of metastatic breast cancer cell lines and tissue specimens. Based on this expression pattern, it was suggested that the encoded protein (hK6)-a novel serine protease-could play a suppressor role in cancer progression. Recent evidence suggests that hK6 represents a novel cancer biomarker, since elevated serum concentrations of hK6 are diagnostic of ovarian cancer and can be exploited for monitoring therapeutic response to treatment. The physiological function(s) of hK6 have not been elucidated. Recently, aberrant expression of the KLK6 gene has been implicated in the pathogenesis of most common neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease. In addition, hK6 is involved in enhanced proteolysis of myelin basic protein associated with multiple sclerosis. Therefore, hK6 and KLK6 gene, represent potential therapeutic targets for pharmacological intervention. In the present study, we have shown that the mechanisms regulating KLK6 transcription and tissue-specific expression involve the action of two different promoters. Also, new KLK6 splice variants were cloned, and shown to account for 10-20% of all KLK6 mRNA species. Previous study had shown no gross genomic alterations in tumor speciments in the KLK6 genomic locus 19q13.4, and in accordance with putative tumor suppressor activity the involvement of epigenetic mechanisms in KLK6 gene silencing in breast cancer was studied. Treatment of KLK6-negative T47D and MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cell lines with the demethylating agent 5-aza-2\\\\\\\\

DNA methylation plays a role in several biological functions, such as gene expression regulation, and several endogenous and exogenous factors affect these DNA methylation patterns in the cell. One such alteration of a cell line's DNA methylation pattern is caused by the insertion of a vector into the cell line. Using the cytosine–extension assay and realtime methylation–specific PCR, alterations of DNA methylation levels on both global and gene–specific levels were investigated. In some cell lines the cellular transformation led to an increase in DNA methylation levels, and in others a decrease in DNA methylation amounts was observed. The same phenomenon was seen in the promoter regions of specific genes, showing that vector–insertion into a cell line caused DNA methylation alterations in many regions of the genome. These alterations in DNA methylation are investigated in this reduced representation study using enrichment of the methylated fraction of fragmented DNA and subsequent GS FLX Titanium sequencing of these methylated fragments. The results of sequence data analysis showed that methylated fragments are distributed over the whole genome, but could be related to only a few specific genes. These results have implications for cell culture work, biotechnological applications and uses in gene therapy. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Biochemistry))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011.

Occupational risk management can be a catalyst in generating superior returns for all stakeholders on a sustainable basis. A number of companies in South Africa have implemented Cardinal Rules of Safety adopted from international companies to ensure the safety of their employees. The purpose of this study was to measure the impact of the cardinal rules on employee safety behaviour implemented at power stations in Mpumalanga. The empirical study was done by using a questionnaire as measuring instrument. The questionnaire was developed from a literature review and contains questions and items relevant to the initial research problem. The questionnaire comprised of five–point Likert scale type questions.The convenience sampling method was applied identifying 90 participants at three different power stations in Mpumalanga taking part in the study. Statistical analysis was performed by the Statistical Consulting Service of the North–West University using SPSS. Cronbach’s alpha co–efficients was used to determine the reliability of the factors. Descriptive statistics (Mean, standard, deviation, were used in the compiling of the profile of the results. While Spearman’s rho correlation coefficient was calculated to identify practically significant associations between variables and factors The research findings suggest that there is practical significant correlation between the factors that were measured. The opinion given by respondents suggests that cardinal rules of safety were implemented, given all the necessary support by management and enforced throughout the organisation. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Biochemistry))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.

Hutchinson-Gilford Progeria Syndrome is described as a series of mutations within the lamin A gene leading to the accumulation of progerin in the nucleus, contributing to premature aging and affecting the epigenetic control. Epigenetic control, such as DNA methylation, relies on DNA methyltransferase enzymes. In human cells, heat shock (HS) leads to the formation of nuclear stress bodies (nSBs); ribonucleoprotein aggregates of Sat III RNA and RNA-binding proteins. The objectives of this study were to determine if epigenetic status induces varying responses to HS and assess the variability of nuclear proteins in similar conditions. Results show epigenetic modifications do not prevent a stress response; however the extent may be affected. In addition the functions of most nuclear antigens were not affected. It is most likely the sum of interactions at the inner nuclear membrane and nuclear lamina interface that result in nuclear strength pertaining to lamin A.