Les grands prématurés sont particulièrement vulnérables aux lésions inflammatoires de la substance blanche (WMI) qui augmentent le risque de troubles cognitifs et neurodéveloppementaux à long terme dans cette population. L’utilisation de l’imagerie par résonance magnétique (IRM) dans cette population a permis une évaluation non invasive de la progression des WMI et une meilleure compréhension de la pathologie. Les WMI sont associées une activation de la microglie et des astrocytes et la production de facteurs pro-inflammatoires, dont l’interleukine 1 (IL-1). En utilisant un modèle de WMI induite par injection intracérébrale de lipopolysaccharides (LPS), nous avons évalué dans un premier temps les changements de méthylation de l’ADN durant la phase aigüe (24 h) et la phase chronique (21 jours) de l’inflammation. Par la suite, nous avons déterminé la capacité de l’IRM multimodale de détecter la lésion et la réponse thérapeutique à un antagoniste du récepteur de l’IL-1. Finalement, par le biais d’un antagoniste et d’un modulateur allostérique du récepteur à l’IL-1, nous avons évalué in vitro le rôle de la signalisation IL-1 durant la phase aigüe de la modulation de l’activation de la microglie et des astrocytes par le LPS. Nous avons démontré la présence d’une altération du méthylome cérébral dans divers mécanismes liés au neurodéveloppement et à la réponse immunitaire. De plus, l’application de l’IRM multimodale dans notre modèle a permis d’évaluer in vivo la lésion et le début de la réponse thérapeutique durant la phase aigüe (24 h) de l’inflammation. L’évaluation à l’IRM corrèle aux changements observés par immunomarquage post mortem. In vitro, le LPS induit une réponse mixte de la microglie et des astrocytes qui évoluent dans le temps vers une réponse pro-inflammatoire et neurotoxique. Bien que l’IL-1 est hautement exprimée par la microglie et les astrocytes, son inhibition a un effet limité sur la modulation de l’activation gliale dû à la multitude de voies activées par le LPS durant la phase aigüe de l’inflammation. / Very premature infants are particularly vulnerable to inflammatory white matter injury (WMI) which increases the risk of long-term cognitive and neurodevelopmental disorders in this population. The use of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in this population has allowed non-invasive assessment of the progression of WMI and a better understanding of the pathology. WMI is associated with activation of microglia and astrocytes and the production of pro-inflammatory mediators, including interleukin 1 (IL-1). Using a model of inflammatory WMI induced by intracerebral injection of lipopolysaccharides (LPS), we first evaluated the changes in DNA methylation during the acute phase (24 h) and the chronic phase (21 days) of inflammation. We then determined the ability of multimodal MRI to detect the lesion and the therapeutic response to an IL-1 receptor antagonist. Finally, using an antagonist and an allosteric modulator of the IL-1 receptor, we evaluated in vitro the contribution of IL-1 signaling during the acute phase of the modulation of microglia and astrocytes activation by LPS. We have shown the presence of persistent alteration DNA methylation profile in the brain that was associated with pathways involved in neurodevelopment and immune response. In addition, the application of multimodal MRI in our model made it possible to evaluate in vivo the lesion and the therapeutic response during the acute phase (24 h) of the inflammation. The changes at the MRI correlated to post-mortem evaluation by immunostaining. In vitro, LPS induce a mixed response of microglia and astrocytes which evolved over time toward a pro-inflammatory and neurotoxic phenotype. Although IL-1 is highly expressed by microglia and astrocytes, its inhibition has a limited effect on the modulation of glial activation due to the multitude of pathways activated by LPS during the acute phase of inflammation.

RNA interference (RNAi) is one of the key mechanisms that are involved in many biological processes such as control of plant gene expression, influence on chromatin arrangement or providing protection against invasive DNA or RNA transposons, viruses and transgenes. In plants, RNAi is triggered by double stranded RNA (dsRNA) that is cleaved by DICER LIKE (DCL) proteins to small RNAs (sRNAs). The size of these sRNAs is in range of 21 - 24 nucleotides (nt). Small RNA acts in the place of origin and they are also a mobile signal which in plants can move to a short distance through plasmodesmata and to a long distance trough phloem. sRNA and Argonaute (AGO) protein form RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC). Together, they recognize the target RNA molecule and contribute to an efficient RNAi phase which may be exhibited by gene silencing at posttranscriptional level (PTGS) or transcriptional level (TGS). The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of silencing constructs, witch in a controlled way differently trigger RNAi directed against the expression of the GFP reporter gene in the model organism Arabidopsis thaliana. Silencing constructs were placed under an inducible promoter activated by the presence of 17-β-estradiol (XVE system). They differed in the way of the dsRNA formation and in the...

Worldwide, alcohol is the third leading risk factor for disease burden, while its harmful use leads to 2.5 million deaths every year. Alcohol dependence (AD) is a complex disease, with devastating effects on individuals, families, and society. It is estimated that 76.3 million people worldwide have suffered from alcohol use disorders (AUD), including alcohol abuse and AD. Alcohol withdrawal or alcohol withdrawal symptom (AWS) refers to a cluster of symptoms that may occur when a heavy drinker suddenly stops or significantly reduces their alcohol intake. These symptoms can start as early as 2 h after the last drink, persist for weeks, and range from mild anxiety and shakiness to severe complications, such as seizures and delirium tremens. Family, twin, and adoption studies have indicated that genetic and environmental factors and their interactions contribute to the development of AD and related phenotypes, with a heritability coefficient of more than 0.5 for AD. Whole-genome linkage and candidate gene association studies have successfully identified several chromosome regions and genes that are related to AD and AWS. Furthermore, gene expression analysis, epigenetic studies, and genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have provided regions and loci for AWS. This chapter reviews the recent findings in genetic studies of AWS.

Maternal infection during pregnancy is associated with increased risk of both schizophrenia and autism in offspring. Based on this observation, the maternal immune activation mouse model was developed, in which pregnant rodents are treated with immune-activating agents and the brains and behavior of the adult offspring studied. This model has been found to recapitulate a variety of molecular, cellular, and behavioral abnormalities observed in both schizophrenia and autism. However, despite the abundant evidence provided by these studies that prenatal exposure to inflammation alters brain development and function later in life, the molecular mechanisms by which inflammation mediates these effects remains unclear. It has been suggested that other prenatal risk factors for neuropsychiatric disease may alter brain development, in part, via epigenetic mechanisms such as DNA methylation and histone modification. However, a link between inflammation and epigenetic modification in brain has not been established. Therefore, the focus of my thesis was to examine the effect of inflammation on the histone modification, trimethylated histone H3 lysine 4 (H3K4me3), which has been implicated in both normal brain development and in schizophrenia. In Chapter II, I describe experiments examining the effect of a specific, cytokine, interleukin-6 (IL-6), on H3K4me3 in rat forebrain culture. I show that IL-6 treatment results in altered levels of H3K4me3 at multiple gene promoters, frequently in conjunction with altered mRNA expression levels, and demonstrate that a subset of these alterations appear to be dependent on signaling via the signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (Stat3) pathway. Furthermore, some of the genes affected by IL-6 also showed altered H3K4me3 levels in autism postmortem brain. Though a direct link still remains to be established, this observation suggests that epigenetic changes observed in neuropsychiatric disease may have been induced by prenatal exposure to inflammation. In Chapter III, I describe in vivo experiments employing the maternal immune activation (MIA) mouse model to examine the effects of prenatal inflammation on H3K4me3 in the brain of the offspring, at both fetal and adult stages. I found that immune activation resulted in increased levels of IL-6 protein in fetal brain, working memory deficits in the adult offspring, and subtle changes in H3K4me3 levels in fetal and adult brain. Taken together, these findings demonstrate that an environmental risk factor for schizophrenia and autism—namely, inflammation—is capable of inducing robust and widespread histone modifications in a model of the central nervous system and smaller changes in vivo. This suggests that prenatal exposure to inflammation in human populations may lead to increased susceptibility for neuropsychiatric disorders, in part, by altering chromatin modifications in developing brain.

The following work demonstrates that paternal diet controls medically important metabolic phenotypes in offspring. We observe transmission of dietary information to the zygote via sperm, and this information evades reprogramming that typically occurs after fertilization. Cytosine methylation is implicated as a major contributor to meiotic epigenetic inheritance in several transgenerational phenomena. Our extensive characterization of the sperm methylome reveals that diet does not significantly affect methylation patterns. However, we find that extensive epivariability in the sperm epigenome makes important contributions to offspring variation. Importantly, coordinate cytosine methylation and copy number changes over the ribosomal DNA locus contributes to variation in offspring metabolism. Thus, rDNA variability acts independently of postadolescent paternal diet to influence offspring metabolism. Therefore, at least two mechanisms exist for epigenetically controlling offspring metabolism: stochastic epivariation and diet acting by an unknown mechanism to further modulate metabolism. This work argues that an offspring's phenotype can no longer be viewed solely as the result of genetic interactions with the developmental environment - the additional influences of paternal environment and inherited epigenetic variability must also be considered. These findings reveal novel contributions to metabolism that could revolutionize how we think about the risk factors for human health and disease.

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Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Bone is a dynamic organ that responds to its external environment. Cell signaling cascades are initiated within bone cells when changes in mechanical loading occur. To describe these molecular signaling networks that sense a mechanical signal and convert it into a transcriptional response, we proposed the mechanosome model. “GO” and “STOP” mechansomes contain an adhesion-associated protein and a nucleocytoplasmic shuttling transcription factor. “GO” mechanosomes functions to promote the anabolic response of bone to mechanical loading, while “STOP” mechanosomes function to suppress the anabolic response of bone to mechanical loading. While much work has been done to describe the molecular mechanisms that enhance the anabolic response of bone to loading, less is known about the signaling mechanisms that suppress bone’s response to loading. We studied two adhesion-associated proteins, Src and Pyk2, which may function as “STOP” mechanosomes. Src kinase is involved in a number of signaling pathways that respond to changes in external loads on bone. An inhibition of Src causes an increase in the expression of the anabolic bone gene osteocalcin. Additionally, mechanical stimulation of osteoblasts and osteocytes by fluid shear stress further enhanced expression of osteocalcin when Src activity was inhibited. Importantly, fluid shear stress stimulated an increase in nuclear Src activation and activity. The mechanism by which Src participates in attenuating anabolic gene transcription remains unknown. The studies described here suggest Src and Pyk2 increase their association in response to fluid shear stress. Pyk2, a protein-tyrosine kinase, exhibits nucleocytoplasmic shuttling, increased association with methyl-CpG-binding protein 2 (MBD2), and suppression of osteopontin expression in response to fluid shear stress. MBD2, known to be involved in DNA methylation and interpretation of DNA methylation patterns, may aid in fluid shear stress-induced suppression of anabolic bone genes. We conclude that both Src and Pyk2 play a role in regulating bone mass, possibly through a complex with MBD2, and function to limit the anabolic response of bone cells to fluid shear stress through the suppression of anabolic bone gene expression. Taken together, these data support the hypothesis that “STOP” mechanosomes exist and their activity is simulated in response to fluid shear stress.

La leucémie est une forme de cancer qui affecte les cellules du système hématopoïétique. Selon la lignée cellulaire affectée et la vitesse de développement du cancer, la leucémie peut être myéloïde ou lymphoïde, aiguë ou chronique, respectivement. Chez les enfants, elles sont souvent caractérisées par la présence de translocations chromosomiques, impliquant notamment le gène KMT2A. L'impact biologique de ces fusions de gènes, connues pour être des perturbateurs épigénétiques, est encore mal compris. Afin d’étudier spécifiquement les conséquences de la présence de fusion impliquant le gène KMT2A, un modèle leucémique humain chez la souris a été mis en place. Le modèle utilisé consiste à induire de manière rétrovirale l’expression d’une fusion oncogénique dans des cellules souches hématopoïétiques et progénitrices d’un unique donneur sain. Ces cellules sont ensuite injectées dans des souris immunodéficientes pour produire une leucémie aiguë myéloïde ou lymphoïde après quelques semaines. L’utilisation de ce modèle leucémique vise à définir les gènes qui sont régulés de manière épigénétique et essentiels dans le processus de leucémogenèse médié par une translocation chromosomique faisant intervenir le gène KMT2A. La première partie des travaux cartographie les changements génétiques et épigénétiques à chacun des stades de la leucémogénèse causée par la fusion KMT2A-MLLT3. Nous avons cartographié les changements épigénétiques tels que la méthylation de l’ADN (Methyl-seq), les modifications des histones (ChIP-seq) et l’accessibilité de la chromatine (ATAC-seq), puis les avons corrélés avec les niveaux d’expression des gènes (RNA-seq). Nous avons observé que les leucémies myéloïdes aiguës présentent un phénotype global d'hypométhylation tandis que les changements d'expression après l'addition de la fusion ont mis en évidence l’inactivation de gènes associés aux cellules souches et des altérations dans d'autres gènes impliqués dans la leucémogenèse tels que S100A8/9. Nos données d’ATAC-seq ont montré qu'il y avait relativement peu de changements spécifiques à la leucémie myéloïde aiguë et que la grande majorité correspondait à des régions de chromatine ouvertes et à des régions contenant des motifs pour des facteurs de transcription précédemment observés dans d'autres types de cellules sanguines. L’analyse des marques d’histones associées à des promoteurs actifs suggère également un potentiel rôle du récepteur CCR1 et de son ligand spécifique CCL23. Finalement, nos résultats suggèrent que la transformation leucémique par la fusion KMT2A-MLLT3 implique des modifications épigénétiques minimes qui requièrent également la coopération des réseaux transcriptionnels utilisés dans les cellules sanguines normales. La deuxième partie de cette thèse s’intéresse à la fusion de gènes KMT2A-MLLT4, une translocation chromosomique peu étudiée mais pour laquelle le pronostic vital des patients est connu pour être défavorable et pire que celui des patients porteurs de la fusion KMT2A-MLLT3. L’extension de notre modèle à la fusion KMT2A-MLLT4 nous permet d’appliquer les mêmes approches que précédemment et de détailler les différences génétiques et épigénétiques entre ces deux fusions, jusqu’à maintenant jamais caractérisées. Nous avons pu observer une baisse globale d’expression dans un groupe de gènes intervenant dans les processus ribosomaux et traductionnels. Par ailleurs, PROM1 (CD133) fait office de potentiel candidat biomarqueur permettant la distinction entre ces deux translocations chromosomiques tandis que le gène LPL pourrait jouer un rôle dans la leucémogenèse médiée par la fusion de gènes KMT2A-MLLT4. En conclusion, l’étude des mécanismes à chacun des stades du développement leucémique nous a fourni une meilleure compréhension des changements épigénétiques intervenant dans le processus de leucémogenèse causé par des réarrangements de type KMT2A. Une meilleure caractérisation de la pathophysiologie de la leucémie pourrait permettre d’explorer des avenues thérapeutiques plus ciblées. / Leukemia is a form of cancer that affects blood cells. Depending on the affected cell lineage and the rate at which the cancer grows, leukemia can be myeloid or lymphoid, or acute or chronic, respectively. In children, they are often characterized by the presence of chromosomal translocations, in particular involving the KMT2A gene. The biological impact of these gene fusions, known to be epigenetic disruptors, is still poorly understood. To study the consequences of the presence of gene fusions involving KMT2A, we have developed a human leukemia model. The model consists of transducing hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (CD34+) from a single healthy donor with a retrovirus bearing an oncogenic fusion. These cells are injected into immunodeficient mice to produce acute myeloid or lymphoid leukemia after a few weeks. By using this model, we aim to define genes that are epigenetically regulated and essential in the process of leukemogenesis mediated by KMT2A gene fusions. The first part of this thesis characterized the genetic and epigenetic changes at each step of leukemogenesis caused by KMT2A-MLLT3 gene fusion. We investigated epigenetic changes such as DNA methylation (Methyl-seq), histone marks (ChIP-seq), and chromatin accessibility (ATAC-seq) and correlated these with expression changes (RNA-seq). We observed that acute myeloid leukemias exhibit a profound hypomethylation phenotype while expression changes after addition of the fusion highlighted the loss of stem cell associated genes and alterations in other genes implicated in leukemogenesis such as S100A8/9 in the early stages of leukemic transformation. Our ATAC-seq data showed that there were relatively few changes specific to acute myeloid leukemia and that the vast majority corresponded to open chromatin regions and clusters of transcription factors previously seen in other types of blood cells. Examination of ChIP-seq data for active histone marks revealed that leukemia specific expression of the chemokine CCL23 can enable autocrine signalling through its cognate receptor, CCR1. Our results suggest that KMT2A-MLLT3 induces minimal changes in the epigenome while co-opting the normal transcriptional machinery to drive leukemogenesis. The second part of this thesis focuses on KMT2A-MLLT4 gene fusion, another chromosomal translocation for which the vital prognosis of patients is known to be worse than that of patients carrying the KMT2A-MLLT3 fusion. The extension of our model to the KMT2A-MLLT4 fusion allows us to apply the same approaches and to characterize the genetic and epigenetic differences between these two different leukemias. We were able to observe a dramatic decrease in the expression level of a group of genes involved in ribosomal and translational processes. Furthermore, PROM1 (CD133) acts as a potential biomarker candidate which might be used to make the distinction between these two leukemias. LPL gene might play a role in leukemogenesis mediated by KMT2A-MLLT4 gene fusion. In conclusion, studying the mechanisms at each stage of leukemic development has provided us with a better understanding of the epigenetic changes involved in the process of leukemogenesis mediated by KMT2A rearrangements. A better characterization of the pathophysiology of leukemia could make it possible to eventually develop more targeted therapeutic treatments.

Chez l’embryon précoce, une vague de reprogrammation majeure survient et permet de réinitialiser les profils de méthylation d’ADN de l’ensemble du génome. Lors de cette reprogrammation, les régions différentiellement méthylées (DMRs) (i.e., gènes empreintes) doivent toutefois être protégées de la déméthylation par une action continue de DNMT1 (Méthyltransférase d’ADN 1) pour assurer le développement adéquat de l’épigénome du fœtus. Sachant que l’induction d’une perte temporaire d’expression de Dnmt1 dans un modèle de cellules souches embryonnaires de souris entraîne la perte permanente des patrons de méthylation d’ADN aux régions DMRs et DMR-like, mon projet de recherche vise à comprendre pourquoi ces régions sont incapables de retrouver leurs patrons de méthylation d’ADN initiaux. Notre hypothèse est qu’une adaptation épigénétique (i.e. réarrangement erroné de certaines modifications d’histones) survient aux régions régulatrices de l’expression des gènes (promoteurs et enhancers) et empêche directement ou indirectement le retour au paysage épigénétique initial aux régions affectées. L’objectif du projet est donc de précisément définir comment la perte temporaire de Dnmt1 remodèle le paysage épigénétique aux régions promotrices (H3K4me3, H3K27me3, H3K27ac, H3K4me1, H3K9me3, méthylation d’ADN) et comment les adaptations épigénétiques sont associées avec des changements de l’expression des gènes (ex : gènes des régions DMRs et DMRs-like). / In early embryos, a major reprogramming wave occurs and permits to reset DNA methylation profiles genome-wide. During the reprogramming wave, differentially methylated regions (DMRs) (imprinted genes) must be protected from demethylation by the continuous action of DNMT1 (DNA Methyltransferase 1) to ensure the proper development of the foetal epigenome. As the induction of a temporary loss of Dnmt1 expression in a mouse embryonic stem cell model leads to permanent losses of DNA methylation at DMR and DMR-like regions, my project aims to understand why those regions are unable to re-establish their initial DNA methylation patterns. Our hypothesis is that an epigenetic adaptation (erroneous rearrangement of certain histone modifications) occurs at regulatory regions controlling gene expression (promoters and enhancers) and impede directly or indirectly the affected regions to return to their initial epigenetic landscape. The goal of this project is thus to define how the temporary loss of Dnmt1 remodels the epigenetic landscape at promoter regions (H3K4me3, H3K27me3, H3K27ac, H3K4me1, H3K9me3, DNA methylation) and how the epigenetic adaptations are associated with changes in gene expression (ex: genes in DMR and DMR-like regions).