Il existe plusieurs moyens d'augmenter la rentabilité d'une exploitation laitière. Parmi celles-ci, la réforme peut avoir un effet sur la production moyenne du troupeau et par conséquent sur les coûts de production de par la modulation de la structure du troupeau qu'elle entraîne. Afin de déterminer une rentabilité optimale des troupeaux, il est donc important de quantifier la réforme et de comprendre les mécanismes qui amènent à réformer un animal. Cette thèse a pour objectif principal de décrire la réforme dans les troupeaux laitiers du Québec. Plus précisément, elle vise à quantifier le taux de réforme, à explorer la relation entre le troupeau, le taux de réforme et le risque individuel de réforme, à déterminer l'effet causal de la mammite clinique sur la réforme, et à identifier les critères de décision utilisés lors de la réforme par les producteurs et les différents intervenants à la ferme. Une étude rétrospective longitudinale a été menée à partir des informations de santé et de production des vaches des troupeaux laitiers du Québec (Canada). Dix années de données, entre 2001 et 2010, ont été utilisées afin de déterminer des profils de troupeau et leurs taux de réforme, et un éventuel lien entre ceux-ci. L'influence du troupeau sur le risque individuel de réforme d'une part, et l'effet causal de la mammite clinique sur la réforme d'autre part, ont été explorés respectivement par analyse contextuelle et à l'aide d'un modèle marginal structural. Les critères de décision de réforme communs entre les producteurs, vétérinaires et autres conseillers ont été identifiés grâce à la méthodologie Q, qui permet de révéler la structure décisionnelle des individus. Cette étude a permis de quantifier un taux de réforme moyen de 32% sur les dix années de suivi de la cohorte, avec des variations importantes entre troupeaux. Il n'a pas été possible de déterminer des profils spécifiques de troupeaux en fonction d'un ensemble de caractéristiques liées à leurs performances de reproduction, de production, à leur gestion et indicateurs de santé. Il est, par contre, possible de les distinguer en fonction de certaines caractéristiques prise une à une et d'y associer le taux de réforme, notamment pour la gestion, la reproduction et la quantité de lait produite. Ces caractéristiques peuvent servir de variables contextuelles dans des analyses multiniveaux. Un effet contextuel du troupeau est présent dans le risque individuel de réforme, mais limité. Il résulte essentiellement de la pression exercée par les primipares arrivant dans le troupeau. Le risque de réforme dû à la mammite clinique, évalué dans le cadre contrefactuel d'une étude longitudinale où l'exposition est dépendante du temps, est comparable entre primipares et multipares. Pour ce risque, la production laitière a moins d'influence chez les primipares que chez les multipares. Les producteurs et leurs conseillers se réfère à un cadre de décision commun pour réformer une vache, se référant essentiellement à la santé mammaire de la vache et à sa production de lait. Le taux de réforme du troupeau n'intervient pas dans la décision de réformer une vache particulière. / There are several ways to increase the profitability of dairy farms. Among them, culling can affect the average herd production and therefore the costs of production, by modifying the herd structure. In order to determine an optimal herd profitability, it is important to quantify the culling rates and to understand the mechanisms leading to the culling of an animal. The main objective of this thesis is to describe culling in Québec dairy herds. Specifically, it aims to quantify the culling rates, to explore relationship between the herd, the culling rate, and the individual culling risk, to determine the causal effect of clinical mastitis on culling, and to identify the decision-making criteria used by producers and farm advisers. A retrospective longitudinal study was conducted on health and production data from cows in dairy herds from Québec, Canada. Ten years of data, between 2001 and 2010, were used to determine herd profiles and their culling rates, and their potential relationship. Herd influence on individual culling risk and the causal effect of clinical mastitis were explored respectively by contextual analysis and by using a marginal structural model. Shared criteria on culling decisions held by dairy producers, veterinarians and other advisers were identified with the help of the Q-methodology, which provides a means to reveal the decision structure of individuals. This study quantified an average culling rate of 32% based on ten years of follow-up, with significant variations between herds. Specific herd profiles according to a set of characteristics related to their reproductive and production performances, management and health indicators could not be determined. It is however possible to distinguish herds against certain unique feature taken one by one and to relate it to the culling rate, including herd management, reproduction performances, and milk production. These indicators can be considered as contextual variables in multilevel analyses. A herd contextual effect is present in the cow culling risk, but limited. It is mainly due to the pressure of heifers coming into the herd. Culling risk due to clinical mastitis, considered in the counterfactual framework of a longitudinal study where exposure is time-varying, is comparable between primiparous and multiparous cows. For this risk, dairy production has less influence in primiparous that in multiparous cows. Producers and their advisers share a common framework for culling decision-making, referring essentially to cow's udder health and her milk production. Herd culling rate is not involved in the decision to cull a specific cow.

Les objectifs de cette étude ont été de : (1) déterminer s’il existe une association entre la présence intra-utérine d'Escherichia coli dans la 1 ère semaine postpartum et le développement de la métrite postpartum, (2) déterminer s’il y a une association entre les gènes de virulence d'E. coli et la métrite postpartum, et (3) d'évaluer si les analyses bactériologiques (bactéries et gènes de virulence d'E. coli) pourraient prédire la métrite postpartum chez la vache laitière. Des écouvillons utérins ont été prélevés dans la première semaine postpartum sur 486 vaches de race Holstein et soumis au laboratoire pour détection de E. coli. Les gènes de virulence d'E. coli ont été identifiés par la technique d'hybridation des sondes radioactives. Un total de 252 vaches (52%) ont été positives à E. coli et 67 vaches positives à la métrite postpartum (13,7%). Les vaches positives à E. coli intra-utérin dès la première semaine postpartum avaient un risque 2,6 fois plus élevé de développer la métrite postpartum que les vaches sans E. coli. La plupart des E. coli possédaient un ou plusieurs gènes des E. coli d'origine extra-intestinale (ExPEC) dont fimH (89%), HlyE (87%) et iss (70%). Parmi les autres gènes ExPEC, on a retrouvé sitA (23%), fepC (20%) hra1 (20%) malX (14%) tsh (11%) et bien d'autres. Les gènes de virulence kpsMTII et hra1 ont été associés à la métrite postpartum avec un rapport de cote de 4,3 chacun. La présence d'E. coli dans l'utérus avait une valeur prédictive positive de 18% tandis que la présence des gènes kpsMTII et hra1 avait une valeur prédictive positive de 36% et 31% respectivement. La détection de certains gènes de virulence d'E. coli dans les prélèvements utérins pourrait renseigner sur le risque de développement de la métrite postpartum chez la vache laitière. Les études ultérieures pourraient tester encore plus de gènes et viser à développer des tests de dépistage simple, facilement et rapidement applicable à la ferme. / The objectives of this study were to (1) determine whether there is an association between the presence of intra-uterine Escherichia coli in the first week postpartum and the occurrence of postpartum metritis in the subsequent weeks, (2) determine whether there is an association between E. coli virulence genes and postpartum metritis, and (3) to assess whether the presence of these E. coli virulence genes could predict the occurrence of postpartum metritis in dairy cows. Uterine swabs were collected in the first week postpartum from 486 Holstein cows and submitted to the laboratory for detection of E. coli. Virulence genes of E. coli were identified using the radioactive probe hybridization method. A total of 252 cows (52%) were positive for intra-uterine E. coli and 67 cows (13.7%) were positive for postpartum metritis. Cows positive for intra-uterine E. coli in the first week postpartum had 2.6 times the odds of developing postpartum metritis compared to negative cows. Most intra-uterine E. coli possessed one or more ExPEC genes, among which FimH (89%), hlyE (87%), and iss (70%). Other ExPEC genes such as sitA (23%), fePC (20%) hra1 (20%) malX (14%) tsh (11%) and others were found with low prevalence. The presence of the virulence genes kpsMTII and hra1 was associated with 4.3 times each the odds of developing postpartum metritis compared to negative cows. The presence of E. coli in the uterus had a positive predictive value of 18%, while the presence of the genes kpsMTII and hra1 had a positive predictive value of 36% and 31% respectively. The detection of certain virulence genes of E. coli in uterine swabs could inform about the risk of developing postpartum metritis in dairy cattle. Further studies could test more virulence genes and aim at developing molecular tests that would be simple, quickly and easily applicable on farm.

A avaliação das modificações no proteinograma do leite tem sido utilizada como meio de diagnóstico das mamites dos bovinos, pois, em decorrência dos processos inflamatórios na glândula mamária, ocorrem alterações, tanto na concentração dos componentes protéicos do leite, como também, surgimento de compostos protéicos não elaborados no processo de secreção láctea. A técnica de fracionamento protéico por eletroforese em gel de poliacrilamida mostrou-se eficiente na detecção de pequenas quantidades de proteínas em fluídos orgânicos. As características das proteínas do leite de vacas sadias, e a avaliação de possíveis fatores de variabilidade foram determinadas em 139 amostras de leite de vacas. Os animais foram, inicialmente, submetidos a exame clínico geral e do úbere, complementado por exames físico-químicos, celulares e microbiológicos do leite, complementares ao diagnóstico das mamites. Do conjunto das amostras, 97 eram de vacas sadias, em plena lactação, sendo utilizadas para estabelecer valores padrões dos constituintes do leite de vacas sadias e avaliar a influência racial - Jersey e Gir; e do número de lactações - animais em primeira lactação, duas ou três lactações e, quatro ou mais lactações sobre o proteinograma lácteo. Além do mais a amostragem serviu de base para a avaliação da fase da lactação sobre o quadro protéico e, permitiram a formação de grupos experimentais para avaliação da influência do número de células somáticas, do isolamento bacteriano e do estado de saúde do úbere no proteinograma lácteo, obtido por eletroforese em gel de poliacrilamida. Os resultados demonstraram influência significativa de fatores raciais no teor de proteína total do soro lácteo, e de suas frações imunoglobulínica, α1-antitripsina, β-lactoglobulina, bem como de um conjunto de proteínas do soro lácteo separadas, mas não identificadas; influência do número de lactações no teor de albumina de origem plasmática, imunoglobulinas, β-lactoglobulina e α-lactoalbumina. A fase da lactação influenciou de forma significativa os teores de proteína total do leite, assim como nas frações protéicas do soro lácteo de vacas sadias, variações evidentes na fase colostral da lactação. O número de células somáticas influenciou o proteinograma do leite, apenas nas amostras com mais de 1.500.000 células somáticas/ml. Não foi demonstrada a influência significativa do isolamento bacteriano no proteinograma lácteo de vacas. Entretanto, observou-se significativa influência da mamite no proteinograma do leite de vacas, agindo, principalmente, nas proteínas não sintetizadas no ciclo fisiológico de secreção da glândula mamária. / The evaluation of the modifications in milk proteinogram is used as a diagnostic tool for bovine mastitis, once the inflammation of the mammary glands leads to changes in the concentration of milk proteic components, as well as the appearance of proteic components that are not elaborated in the milk secretion process. The technique of protein fractioning by electrophoresis in polyacrylamide gel is effective in detecting small amounts of proteins in organic fluids. The features of milk proteins of healthy cows and the evaluation of possible variability factors were determined in 139 cow milk samples. Animals were first submitted to general clinical examination and udder examination, and to physical-chemical, cellular and microbiological milk tests, complementary to mastitis diagnosis. Of the total samples, 97 were from healthy cows in full lactation, used to establish reference values for the components of healthy cow milk and to evaluate the influence of breed - Jersey and Gir, and number of lactations - first, two or three lactations, and four or more lactations on milk proteinogram. Additionally, sampling was useful as a base for the formation of experimental groups for evaluation of the influence of the number of somatic cells, bacterial isolation and health condition of the udder on milk proteinogram obtained by electrophoresis in polyacrylamide gel. Results showed a significant influence of breed related factors on the level of total protein and its fractions immunoglobulinic, α1-antitripsin, β-lactoglobulin in whey, as well as on the level of a group of separated but not identified whey proteins; influence of the number of lactations on the level of albumin of plasmatic origin, immunoglobulins, β-lactoglobulin and α-lactoalbumin. The lactation phase influenced the levels of milk serum protein significantly, as well as the proteic fractions of healthy cow milk serum, variation evident in the colostrum phase of lactation. The number of somatic cells influenced milk proteinogram only in samples with more than 1,500,000 somatic cells. No significant influence of bacterial isolation on milk proteinogram was demonstrated. However, a significant influence of mastitis on the proteinogram of cow milk was observed, affecting mostly those proteins not synthetized in the physiologic cycle of mammary gland secretion.

A manipulação da dieta constitui uma prática efetiva e rápida de alteração da composição do leite, especialmente do seu teor de gordura. Entretanto, os mecanismos envolvidos não são ainda completamente conhecidos, embora muito se tenha avançado na última década. Sabe-se hoje que certo tipo de ácido graxo (CLA trans-10 cis-12) formado no rúmen sob condições específicas de alimentação é capaz de inibir a síntese de gordura do leite. Entretanto, depressão da gordura do leite (DGL) tem sido observada em casos (e.g. dietas contendo óleo de peixe) onde não há formação deste inibidor. Embora o efeito do CLA sobre a secreção de gordura do leite já esteja bem caracterizado, estudo prévio conduzido pelo nosso grupo mostrou ainda um aumento do teor de proteína do leite em resposta a este tratamento. Dois experimentos foram conduzidos com os seguintes objetivos principais, respectivamente: 1) determinar se um maior suprimento de proteína através da dieta afeta a secreção de proteína do leite de vacas recebendo CLA e 2) Estudar os mecanismos envolvidos na DGL de vacas recebendo dietas contendo óleo de peixe (OP) e níveis distintos de fibra. No primeiro experimento, 48 vacas em lactação receberam os seguintes tratamentos: 1) Dieta controle (DC) + Lac100, 2) DC + CLA, 3) Dieta com alta proteína (DAP) + Lac100 e 4) DAP + CLA. O Lac100 (sais de cálcio de óleo de soja) foi utilizado como placebo. O CLA foi protegido por encapsulação e o produto utilizado continha ~16% de CLA. No segundo experimento, 12 vacas em lactação foram avaliadas em 3 períodos: a) Basal: os animais receberam uma dieta com alto teor de fibra sem OP (dieta basal) por 12 dias; b) Suplementação: 4 vacas/grupo receberam os seguintes tratamentos: 1) Dieta com alta fibra + OP (AF+OP), 2) Dieta com baixa fibra sem OP (BF) e 3) Dieta com baixa fibra + OP (BF+OP); c) Pós-suplementação: todos os animais passaram a receber novamente a dieta basal por 12 dias. Os resultados obtidos no primeiro experimento mostraram que o CLA não foi eficientemente protegido, de forma que a redução da secreção de gordura do leite foi de pequena magnitude em relação a outros trabalhos. Da mesma forma, a proteção dos sais de cálcio de óleo de soja foi pequena, resultando em maior concentração de CLA cis-9 trans-11 (P<0,05) e menor concentração de ácido linoléico (P<0,05) no leite dos animais. Apesar da concentração do CLA trans-10 cis-12 no leite ter aumentado igualmente em resposta ao CLA e ao Lac100, o teor de gordura do leite foi menor (P<0,05) no primeiro tratamento, sugerindo a presença de outros inibidores (ou precursores) no produto utilizado. A concentração de CLA trans-10 cis-12 no leite explicou ~50% da variação da DGL, sugerindo que outros fatores afetaram a síntese de gordura do leite. Os resultados do segundo experimento demostraram, de forma inédita, que o CLA trans-9 cis-11 e o C18:1 cis-11 estão estreitamente relacionados à DGL dos animais que receberam OP. A DGL foi causada por uma ampla redução (P<0,01) da secreção tanto dos ácidos graxos sintetizados de novo quanto dos pré-formados, sugerindo que o mecanismo da DGL pode envolver a inibição de diferentes enzimas lipogênicas. O menor (P<0,01) índice de atividade da enzima &#8710;-9 dessaturase em animais que receberam OP é consistente com a idéia acima. Diferentemente do observado em resposta ao OP, a secreção de gordura do leite não foi afetada pelo tratamento BF (P>0,1). Os teores de proteína e lactose aumentaram na dieta BF e nas dietas contendo OP, respectivamente. / Diet manipulation is an effective and rapid way to change milk composition, mainly for fat content. However, mechanisms are not fully undestood in despite of progress in the area over the last decade. Nowadays, it is known that a molecule of fatty acid (CLA trans-10 cis-12) which is formed in the rumen under specific feeding situations is capable of inhibiting milk fat synthesis. However, milk fat depression (MFD) has been observed even at conditions where there is no formation of trans-10 cis12 CLA (e.g. fish oil-supplemented diets). Although CLA effects on milk fat synthesis are well-established, previous study from our group also showed an increase on milk protein content in cows fed CLA. Two trials were conducted with two main objectives: 1) to determine if an additional supply of diet protein affects milk fat synthesis in cows fed CLA and 2) to study the mechanisms involved in MFD of cows fed diets with fish oil (FO) and different fiber levels. In the first trial, 48 lactating cows received the treatments as follow: 1) Control Diet (CD) + Lac100, 2) CD + CLA, 3) High Protein Diet (HPD) + Lac100 and 4) HPD + CLA. The Lac100 (calcium salts of soybean oil) was used as a placebo. CLA was protected by encapsulation (prills) and the product contained 16% CLA. In the second trial, 12 lactating dairy cows were evaluated in three periods: a) Basal: for 12 days, all cows received a baseline diet (High fiber without FO); b) Suplementation: 4 cows/group received the treatments for 21 days: 1) High fiber diet + FO (HF+FO); 2) Low fiber diet without FO (LF) and 3) Low fiber diet + FO (LF+FO); c) Post-supplementation: cows returned to baseline diet on 12 days. Results from the first trial showed that CLA protection method was innefficient. Thus, milk fat reduction was smaller than in other studies. Protection of calcium salts of soybean oil was also small which resulted in higher cis-9 trans-11 CLA and lower linoleic acid concentrations (P<0.05) in milk from cows fed Lac100. In despite of similar milk trans-10 cis-12 CLA increase in response to CLA and Lac100, milk fat content was lower (P<0.05) in cows fed CLA. It suggests the presence of other fat inhibitors (or precursors) in the product containing CLA isomers. Moreover, concentration of milk trans-10 cis-12 CLA explained ~50% of MFD suggesting others factors influencing milk fat synthesis. Results of the second trial were inedit in showing the close association of milk trans-9 cis-11 CLA and C18:1cis-11 concentrations and FO-induced MFD. MFD resulted from a lower (P<0,01) secretion of both de novo and preformed milk fatty acids. It suggests that mechanisms of FO-induced MFD must involve the inhibition of different lipogenic enzymes. The lower (P<0.01) dessaturase activity index in cows fed FO is consistent with this hypothesis. In contrast to FO, milk fat secretion was unchanged (P>0.1) by LF diet which is consistent with low CLA trans-10 cis-12 and C18:1trans-10 concentrations in milk from cows fed this diet. Contents of milk protein and milk lactose increased (P<0.05) in cows fed LF and FO diets, respectivelly.

Objetivou-se estudar a substituição do milho por polpa cítrica peletizada no concentrado de vacas leiteiras em lactação, durante a estação chuvosa do ano, em pastejo de capim-elefante. Os trabalhos foram conduzidos no Departamento de Zootecnia da ESALQ/USP. O delineamento estatístico foi em Quadrado Latino 4 x 4, analisados utilizando-se o Proc GLM (SAS, 1999). Foi utilizada uma área de 7,8 ha de pastagem dividida em 39 piquetes de 0,2 ha cada, adubada com 80 kg N ha mês-1. Experimento I: Foram utilizadas oito vacas Holandesas com média de 82 dias de lactação e 522,9 kg de PV, no início do período experimental. Os tratamentos continham as seguintes proporções de milho e polpa cítrica: 100:0 (T0); 75:25 (T25); 50:50 (T50); 25:75 (T75). As vacas receberam 7,00 kg de concentrado dia-1 (6,3 kg MS), fracionado em duas vezes ao dia. A pastagem foi adubada com 80 kg N ha.mês-1. Não houve diferença (P>0,05) no tempo de pastejo (7h22’), ruminação (8h36’), ócio (5h56’) e taxa de bocados (34,4 movimentos min-1). A temperatura retal (38,74 e 39,64ºC) e freqüência respiratória (47,44 e 61,20 movimentos min-1), mensuradas as 8:00 e as 15:30 horas, respectivamente, não foram afetadas pelos tratamentos (P>0,05). Não houve diferença (P>0,05) na produção de leite corrigida para 3,5% de gordura (18,5 kg vaca dia-1), percentagens de gordura (3,5%), proteína (3,06%), lactose (4,40%), sólidos totais (13,02%), N-uréico (15,01 mg dL-1) e contagem de células somáticas (203.000 mL-1). O peso vivo (536,8 kg), condição corporal (2,51), glicose plasmática (75,90 mg dL-1), N-uréico plasmático (16,96 mg dL-1) e ácidos graxos livres no plasma (456,12 mEq L-1) também não foram afetados pelos tratamentos (P>0,05). Experimento II: Foram utilizadas 11 vacas (7 Holandesas e 4 Jersey), com 427,5 kg de PV e 153,22 dias de lactação, no início do período experimental. Os concentrados continham 21,8% de PB e as respectivas proporções de milho e polpa cítrica: 100:0 (T0); 75:25 (T25); 50:50 (T50); 25:75 (T75). As vacas receberam 6,1 kg de concentrado dia-1 (5,5 kg de MS), fracionado em duas vezes ao dia, fornecido após cada ordenha. A pastagem era adubada com 80 kg N ha mês-1. Não houve diferença (P>0,05) na produção de leite corrigida para 3,5% de gordura (13,7 kg vaca dia-1), percentagens de gordura (3,8%), proteína (3,37%), sólidos totais (13,27%), N uréico (14,34 mg dL-1) e contagem de células somáticas (140.450 mL-1). A percentagem de lactose foi diferente (P<0,05) para a maior dose de substituição. O peso vivo (427,2 kg), condição corporal (2,74), glicose plasmática (74,63 mg dL-1), N uréico plasmático (16,74 mg dL-1), e ácidos graxos livres no plasma (417,81 mEq L-1) não foram afetados pelos tratamentos (P>0,05). Não houve diferença (P>0,05) no tempo de pastejo (7h51’), ruminação (7h59’), ócio (6h) e taxa de bocados (37,91 movimentos min-1). A Temperatura retal (38,76 e 39,61ºC) e freqüência respiratória (53,57 e 71,50 movimentos min-1), mensuradas às 8:00 e às 15:30 horas, respectivamente, não foram afetadas pelos tratamentos (P>0,05). O milho pode ser substituído pela polpa cítrica sem depreciar a produção e composição do leite. / Two experiments were conducted to study the partial substitution of fine ground corn by peleted pulp citric in the concentrate of lactating cows in middle lactation (Experiment I) and in late lactation (Experiment II), grazing elephant - grass pasture. The trials were conducted at the Animal Science Department of ESALQ/USP. In both experiments, the animals were grouped according to milk yield, days in milk and parturition order. The statistical designs were repeated 4 x 4 Latin Square. The data were analysed using the Proc GLM of SAS (1999). Experiment I: Eight Holstein cows (82 DIM and 522.9 kg LBW), at the beginning of the trial were used. The concentrates contained the following corn:peleted citrus pulp proportions: 100:0 (T0); 75:25 (T25); 50:50 (T50); 25:75 (T75). The cows received 7 kg of concentrate day-1 (6.3 kg of DM), fractionated in 2 daily meals. The pasture was fertilized with 80 kg N ha.month-1. The forage offer was of 33,6 kg DM of green leaves cow day-1. There was not difference (P>0.05) in the grazing time (7h22’), rumination time (8h36’), leisure time (5h56’) and biting rate (34.4 movements min-1). The rectal temperature (38.74 and 39.64ºC) and respiratory frequency (47.44 and 61.20 movements min-1), measured at 8:00 AM and at 3:30 PM, respectively, were not affected by treatments (P>0.05). There was not difference (P>0.05) in 3.5 % FCM yield (18.5 kg cow day-1), in the contents of milk fat (3.5%), protein (3.06%), lactose (4.40%) and total solids (13.02%), milk urea-N (15.01 mg dL-1) and of somatic cells (203.000 mL-1) were not affected by treatments (P>0.05). The LBW (536.8 kg), BCS (2.51), plasma glucose (75.90 mg dL-1), plasma urea-N (16.96 mg dL-1) and plasma free fat acids (456.12 mEq L-1) were not affected by treatments (P>0.05). Experiment II: Eleven cows were used, 7 Holstein and 4 Jersey (427.5 kg LBW and 153.22 DIM), at the beginning of the trial. The concentrates were 21.8% of CP (DM bases), and the respective corn:peleted citric pulp ratio were: 100:0 (T0); 75:25 (T25); 50:50 (T50); 25:75 (T75). The cows were fed 6.1 kg day-1 of concentrate (5.5 kg of DM), fractionated in 2 daily meals, after each milking. There was not difference (P>0.05) in 3.5 FCM yield (13.7 kg cow day-1), in the content of milk fat (3.8%), protein (3.37%) and total solids (13.27%), milk urea-N (14.34 mg dL-1) and somatic cells (140,450 mL-1). The lactose content was lower (P<0.05) for the 25:75 diet. The LBW (427.2 kg), BCS (2.74), plasma glucose (74.63 mg dL-1), plasma urea-N (16.74 mg dL-1), and plasma free fat acids (417.81 mEq L-1) were not affected by treatments (P>0.05). There were no difference (P>0.05) in the grazing time (7h51’), rumination time (7h59’), leisure time (6h) and biting rate (37.91 movements min-1). The rectal temperature (38.76 and 39.61ºC) and respiratory frequency (53.57 and 71.50 movements min-1), measured at 8:00 and at 15:30 hours, respectively, were not affected by treatments (P>0.05). The corn can be substituted by the citric pulp without depreciating the milk yield and content.

O trabalho foi realizado em duas fases. A primeira teve como objetivo avaliar as intermitências do sistema de resfriamento adiabático evaporativo por aspersão na linha de alimentação em freestall usando os índices de conforto térmico e respostas fisiológicas de vacas em lactação. Foram utilizadas 12 vacas, multíparas, produção média de 30 kg de leite dia-1. Os tratamentos adotados foram às intermitências de 12, 14 e 16 min. A temperatura do bulbo seco (TBS), umidade relativa (UR) e temperatura de globo negro (TGN) foram mensuradas ao longo das 24 horas. A freqüência respiratória (FR), temperatura retal (TR) e temperatura da pele (TP) foram medidas diariamente em intervalos determinados. A TBS (31,5ºC), TGN (32,5ºC), THI (79,1) e BGHI (80,9) foram maiores na intermitência 12 min quando comparados aos demais tratamentos. A UR foi mais elevada no tratamento 14 min (60,3%) em relação à intermitência de 12 min (51,0%). As vacas que receberam o tratamento 12 min apresentaram maior valor de TR (39,1ºC) e FR (76,0 mov min-1) quando comparadas ao tratamento 16 min. O intervalo de 16 min resultou em menor consumo de água, devendo ser empregado para evitar desperdícios do SRAE. O segundo experimento objetivou avaliar a eficiência de sistemas de climatização na área de descanso em freestall e sua influência nas respostas produtivas, fisiológicas e comportamentais de vacas em lactação. O período experimental teve duração de 28 dias consecutivos do mês de novembro de 2003. Foram utilizadas 30 vacas em lactação, multíparas, com produção média de 20 kg de leite dia-1. Os tratamentos adotados foram: ausência de ventilação (V0), ventilação (V) e ventilação + nebulização (VN) posicionados na cama dos animais. A temperatura do bulbo seco (TBS), umidade relativa do ar (UR) e temperatura de globo negro (TGN) foram mensurados ao longo das 24 horas. A freqüência respiratória (FR), temperatura retal (TR) e temperatura do pelame (TP) foram realizadas às 9, 11, 13, 15 e 17 horas. Para a análise comportamental, instalaram-se quatro vídeo-câmeras por tratamento, em locais estratégicos do freestall para capturar a ingestão, ruminação, ócio e deslocamento dos animais. As variáveis meteorológicas e índices de conforto permaneceram acima da termoneutralidade. Também não foram constatadas alterações na freqüência respiratória e temperatura do pelame. Os animais em V0 e V apresentaram maior consumo de matéria seca, entretanto, este não refletiu em maior produção de leite. Verificou-se maior tempo despendido com a ingestão de alimentos (106,8 min) e água (21,7 min) nos animais do tratamento V quando comparados com V0 e VN. O tempo de ruminação dos animais em V0 (164,3 min) foi superior aos constatados em V (102,5 min) e VN (129,5 min). Já as vacas do tratamento VN (200,2 min) apresentaram maior tempo em ócio quando comparadas com V0 (164,3 min) e V (117,0 min). Não foram constatas diferenças no tempo que as vacas permaneceram deitadas. Nas condições do presente experimento, a adoção de sistemas de climatização na área de descanso não se mostrou eficiente. / This first work aimed to evaluate the effect of sprinkling frequency of adiabatic evaporative cooling system within feed line of a freestall in relation to temperature and humidity index (THI) and black globe temperature index (BGHI) and physiological responses in dairy cows. Data were registered during 116 days from January to May 2003. Twelve multiparous dairy cows with mean milk production of 30 kg day-1 were used. Treatments were sprinkling frequencies every 12, 14 or 16 minutes in sprinkler system with the same non-intermittent interval (85 seconds). Dry bulb temperature (DBT), air relative humidity (RH) and black globe temperature (BGT) inside and outside of facilities were measured hourly through a period of 24 hours. Respiratory frequency (RF), rectal temperature (RT) and skin temperature (ST) were taken at 13, 14, 15 and 16h in all the animals submitted to the treatments. The meteorological variables, DBT (31.5ºC) and BGT (32.5ºC), and the indexes of thermal comfort, THI (79.1) and BGHI (80.9), were higher with 12 minutes of sprinkling frequency when compared to other treatments. The RH was higher (60.3%) with 14 minutes than with 12 minutes (51.0%). In relation to physiological parameters, lactating cows with 12 minutes had higher rectal temperature (39.1ºC), respiratory frequency (76.0 mov min-1) when compared to with 16 minutes. To avoid unnecessary wastes should be used the interval of 16 min that resulted in the smallest amount of water consumed by the sprinkling cooling system. The second work aimed to evaluate the efficiency of thermal conditioned in free-stall facilities and its consequences on productive and physiological responses in dairy cows. Experimental period was 28 consecutive days of November 2003. Third dairy multiple cows with mean milk production of 20 kg.day-1. Treatments were: non-fan (NF), fan (F) and fan + misting (FM) in direction to animal bedding. Dry bulb temperature (DBT), air relative humidity (RH) and black globe temperature (BGT) inside and outside of facilities were measured every 15 minutes through a period of 24 hours. Milking was realized at 1, 9 and 17 hours and registering daily production. Animals were fed twice a day (10 and 15 hours) and amounts of offered and rejected feed were daily registered. Physiological data, as respiratory frequency (RF), rectal temperature (RT) and skin temperature (ST), were taken at 9, 11, 13, 15 and 17h. The RH was higher in V0 (61.8%) and VN (61.8%) treatments than in V (60.3%). The facilities (V) where it was used had higher BGT (27.4ºC) in relation to V0 (27.1ºC). Also, THI was higher in V (75.0) than in V0 (74.5) and VN (74.3) treatments. In relation to physiological parameters, lactating cows of V0 treatment had lower rectal temperature at 11, 13 and 17h. Respiratory frequencies were within normal variation, showing that animals of all treatments did not in heat stress condition. Higher feed intakes were observed in animals of V0 (20.5 kg DM.day-1) and V (21.3 kg DM.day-1) treatments, but it did not increase milk productions.

O trabalho foi realizado em duas fases. A primeira teve como objetivo avaliar as intermitências do sistema de resfriamento adiabático evaporativo por aspersão na linha de alimentação em freestall usando os índices de conforto térmico e respostas fisiológicas de vacas em lactação. Foram utilizadas 12 vacas, multíparas, produção média de 30 kg de leite dia-1. Os tratamentos adotados foram às intermitências de 12, 14 e 16 min. A temperatura do bulbo seco (TBS), umidade relativa (UR) e temperatura de globo negro (TGN) foram mensuradas ao longo das 24 horas. A freqüência respiratória (FR), temperatura retal (TR) e temperatura da pele (TP) foram medidas diariamente em intervalos determinados. A TBS (31,5ºC), TGN (32,5ºC), THI (79,1) e BGHI (80,9) foram maiores na intermitência 12 min quando comparados aos demais tratamentos. A UR foi mais elevada no tratamento 14 min (60,3%) em relação à intermitência de 12 min (51,0%). As vacas que receberam o tratamento 12 min apresentaram maior valor de TR (39,1ºC) e FR (76,0 mov min-1) quando comparadas ao tratamento 16 min. O intervalo de 16 min resultou em menor consumo de água, devendo ser empregado para evitar desperdícios do SRAE. O segundo experimento objetivou avaliar a eficiência de sistemas de climatização na área de descanso em freestall e sua influência nas respostas produtivas, fisiológicas e comportamentais de vacas em lactação. O período experimental teve duração de 28 dias consecutivos do mês de novembro de 2003. Foram utilizadas 30 vacas em lactação, multíparas, com produção média de 20 kg de leite dia-1. Os tratamentos adotados foram: ausência de ventilação (V0), ventilação (V) e ventilação + nebulização (VN) posicionados na cama dos animais. A temperatura do bulbo seco (TBS), umidade relativa do ar (UR) e temperatura de globo negro (TGN) foram mensurados ao longo das 24 horas. A freqüência respiratória (FR), temperatura retal (TR) e temperatura do pelame (TP) foram realizadas às 9, 11, 13, 15 e 17 horas. Para a análise comportamental, instalaram-se quatro vídeo-câmeras por tratamento, em locais estratégicos do freestall para capturar a ingestão, ruminação, ócio e deslocamento dos animais. As variáveis meteorológicas e índices de conforto permaneceram acima da termoneutralidade. Também não foram constatadas alterações na freqüência respiratória e temperatura do pelame. Os animais em V0 e V apresentaram maior consumo de matéria seca, entretanto, este não refletiu em maior produção de leite. Verificou-se maior tempo despendido com a ingestão de alimentos (106,8 min) e água (21,7 min) nos animais do tratamento V quando comparados com V0 e VN. O tempo de ruminação dos animais em V0 (164,3 min) foi superior aos constatados em V (102,5 min) e VN (129,5 min). Já as vacas do tratamento VN (200,2 min) apresentaram maior tempo em ócio quando comparadas com V0 (164,3 min) e V (117,0 min). Não foram constatas diferenças no tempo que as vacas permaneceram deitadas. Nas condições do presente experimento, a adoção de sistemas de climatização na área de descanso não se mostrou eficiente. / This first work aimed to evaluate the effect of sprinkling frequency of adiabatic evaporative cooling system within feed line of a freestall in relation to temperature and humidity index (THI) and black globe temperature index (BGHI) and physiological responses in dairy cows. Data were registered during 116 days from January to May 2003. Twelve multiparous dairy cows with mean milk production of 30 kg day-1 were used. Treatments were sprinkling frequencies every 12, 14 or 16 minutes in sprinkler system with the same non-intermittent interval (85 seconds). Dry bulb temperature (DBT), air relative humidity (RH) and black globe temperature (BGT) inside and outside of facilities were measured hourly through a period of 24 hours. Respiratory frequency (RF), rectal temperature (RT) and skin temperature (ST) were taken at 13, 14, 15 and 16h in all the animals submitted to the treatments. The meteorological variables, DBT (31.5ºC) and BGT (32.5ºC), and the indexes of thermal comfort, THI (79.1) and BGHI (80.9), were higher with 12 minutes of sprinkling frequency when compared to other treatments. The RH was higher (60.3%) with 14 minutes than with 12 minutes (51.0%). In relation to physiological parameters, lactating cows with 12 minutes had higher rectal temperature (39.1ºC), respiratory frequency (76.0 mov min-1) when compared to with 16 minutes. To avoid unnecessary wastes should be used the interval of 16 min that resulted in the smallest amount of water consumed by the sprinkling cooling system. The second work aimed to evaluate the efficiency of thermal conditioned in free-stall facilities and its consequences on productive and physiological responses in dairy cows. Experimental period was 28 consecutive days of November 2003. Third dairy multiple cows with mean milk production of 20 kg.day-1. Treatments were: non-fan (NF), fan (F) and fan + misting (FM) in direction to animal bedding. Dry bulb temperature (DBT), air relative humidity (RH) and black globe temperature (BGT) inside and outside of facilities were measured every 15 minutes through a period of 24 hours. Milking was realized at 1, 9 and 17 hours and registering daily production. Animals were fed twice a day (10 and 15 hours) and amounts of offered and rejected feed were daily registered. Physiological data, as respiratory frequency (RF), rectal temperature (RT) and skin temperature (ST), were taken at 9, 11, 13, 15 and 17h. The RH was higher in V0 (61.8%) and VN (61.8%) treatments than in V (60.3%). The facilities (V) where it was used had higher BGT (27.4ºC) in relation to V0 (27.1ºC). Also, THI was higher in V (75.0) than in V0 (74.5) and VN (74.3) treatments. In relation to physiological parameters, lactating cows of V0 treatment had lower rectal temperature at 11, 13 and 17h. Respiratory frequencies were within normal variation, showing that animals of all treatments did not in heat stress condition. Higher feed intakes were observed in animals of V0 (20.5 kg DM.day-1) and V (21.3 kg DM.day-1) treatments, but it did not increase milk productions.

No description available.

In der vorliegenden Studie wurde die Sanierung einer durch S. aureus verursachten Eutergesundheitsstörung in einem hessischen Milchviehbestand mittels klassischer Sanierungsmaßnahmen über einen Zeitraum von 18 Monaten begleitet. Durch konsequente Einhaltung der Sanierungsmaßnahmen nach dem Fünf-Punkte-Plan und die räumliche Trennung der Herde in eine S. aureus-positive und -negative Gruppe sank die S. aureus-Prävalenz im Betrieb innerhalb von 15 Monaten von 30% auf <1%. Nach 18 Monaten waren erstmalig keine Neuinfektionen mehr mit S. aureus zu verzeichnen. Zusätzlich zu den im Abstand von drei Monaten durchgeführten Viertelanfangsgemelk (VAG)- Gesamtbestandsuntersuchungen wurden Umweltproben bakteriologisch auf das Vorhandensein von S. aureus untersucht. Diese Untersuchungen verliefen ausschließlich mit negativem Ergebnis. Die im Untersuchungszeitraum asservierten 218 S. aureus-Isolate aus diesem Betrieb wurden genotypisch mittels PCR untersucht. Thermonuklease-Gen, Protein A-Gen (IgG-bindende Region) und Polymorphismen bei Protein A-Gen (Xr-Region) sowie Koagulase-Gen ermöglichten die Unterscheidung in sechs Typen. Zusätzlich wurden 80 dieser Isolate mittels Pulsfeldgelelektrophorese (Pfge, Gold Standard) typisiert. Es konnten zwei Pfge-Typen gefunden werden: Pfge-Typ I mit insgesamt 10 Subtypen (bei 78 Isolaten) und Pfge-Typ II (bei zwei Isolaten). Der Pfge-Typ II wurde ausschließlich bei einem Zukaufstier nachgewiesen, das vor der Einstallung in diesen Betrieb nicht zytobakteriologisch untersucht worden war. Die 12 unterschiedlichen Pfge-Typen bzw. -Subtypen wurden zusätzlich mittels Staphylokokken-Protein A- (spa)-Typisierung untersucht. Dabei zeigte sich, dass alle Subtypen des Pfge-Typs I dem spa-Typ t2067 zugeordnet werden konnten und der Pfge-Typ II dem spa-Typ t2112 entsprach. 92 weitere bovine S. aureus-Mastitisisolate wurden möglichst randomisiert über das Landesgebiet Hessens entnommen und mittels dieser Typisierungsmethode untersucht. Die Isolate stammten ebenfalls aus S. aureus-Problembetrieben und wurden aus VAG von (sub-) klinischen Mastitiden in Reinkultur isoliert. Insgesamt konnten 28 spa-Typen unterschieden werden. Durch den Algorithmus BURP wurden 57 dieser Isolate dem Clonal Complex CC543 zugeordnet und waren demnach genetisch eng miteinander verwandt. Der in dem Sanierungsbetrieb vorherrschende spa-Typ t2067 war dem CC543 nicht zuzuordnen. Die Anwendung der spa-Typisierung in der Routinediagnostik und damit die Möglichkeit der laborübergreifenden, möglichst zentralisierten Datendokumentation der Ergebnisse könnten zukünftig die Identifizierung besonders häufig vorkommender und damit hochkontagiöser S. aureus-Stämme ermöglichen.

Die subklinische Klauenrehe stellt als Ausgangspunkt für eine Vielzahl daraus resultierender Klauenerkrankungen einen wichtigen Faktor in Bezug auf Tierschutz und Wirtschaftlichkeit von Hochleistungsmilchkühen dar. Die Ätiologie und Pathogenese dieser komplizierten Klauenerkrankung ist bis heute noch nicht eindeutig geklärt. Eine Vielzahl von Faktoren kann die Klauenlederhaut im Sinne einer Reheentwicklung negativ beeinflussen. In der vorliegenden Arbeit sollte der Einfluss der negativen Energiebilanz nach der Kalbung und eines daraus resultierenden Fettmobilisationssyndroms auf die Entwicklung rehetypischer Anzeichen an den Klauen untersucht werden. Weiterhin sollte geprüft werden, inwieweit die thermographische Untersuchung der Klauen nach der Kalbung, also dem predistinierten Zeitpunkt für die Entwicklung einer Klauenrehe, in der Lage ist, Aufschluss über den Entzündungszustand der Lederhaut zu geben und dementsprechend als frühdiagnostisches Mittel zur Erkennung der subklinischen Klauenrehe Anwendung finden kann. Die Temperaturverteilung über die einzelnen Hauptklauen und die Veränderung dieser im Laufe der Frühlaktation, sowie Unterschiede zwischen primiparen und multiparen Tieren wurde untersucht. Hierfür wurden die Klauen von 123 Kühen und Färsen bzw. Jungkühen aus drei Milchviehanlagen mit ähnlichen Jahresleistungen und verschiedenen Stallböden in der ersten Woche nach der Kalbung, sowie nach Vollendung des zweiten Laktationsmonats bezüglich des Vorliegens einer Lahmheit und, nach der Durchführung einer funktionellen Klauenpflege, auf Anzeichen der subklinischen Klauenrehe durch Vergabe eines Klauenscores untersucht und zusätzlich mittels Thermographie der Fußungsfläche analysiert. Um den Einfluss des Stoffwechsels auf die Reheentwicklung definieren zu können, erfolgten im Zeitraum von 8 Wochen vor der Kalbung bis 8 Wochen nach der Kalbung in regelmäßigen Abständen Messungen der Rückenfettdicke sowie Blutprobenentnahme zur Bestimmung der jeweiligen Freien-Fettsäuren- (FFS), ß-Hydroxybutyrat- (BHB) und Glucosekonzentrationen. Um den Einfluss anderer Stoffwechselentgleisungen abzugrenzen, wurden weiterhin die Parameter Lactat, Gesamtprotein, Albumin, Harnstoff, Calcium, Creatinkinase (CK), Aspartataminotransferase (ASAT) und Lactatdehydrogenase (LDH) bestimmt. Bei der Beurteilung von Lahmheit und Reheanzeichen stellte sich eine signifikante Zunahme letztgenannter nach dem zweiten Laktationsmonat dar. Die Lahmheitsinzidenz nahm dagegen leicht ab. Gummiböden hatten insgesamt einen positiven Effekt auf die Reheentwicklung. Jungkühe wiesen deutlich stärkere rehetypische Veränderungen (Hämorrhagien, Gelbverfärbungen im Horn, weiches Horn) auf als ältere Tiere. Die rehetypischen Veränderungen konzentrierten sich dabei bei allen Probanden auf die hinteren Lateralklauen. Die Thermographie zeigte gravierende Differenzen zwischen den Vorder- und Hintergliedmaßen, sowie zwischen Lateral- und Medialklauen. Die Hinterklauen waren deutlich (p<0,0001) wärmer als die Vorderklauen. Die Lateralklauen der Hintergliedmaßen zeigten sich wärmer als die Medialklauen, während es sich an den Vorderklauen tendenziell umgekehrt verhielt. Im Laktationsverlauf ließ sich eine leichte Zunahme der Differenzen beobachten, wobei sich die Absoluttemperaturen kaum unterschieden. Obwohl die Verteilung von rehetypischen Veränderungen dem Muster der Temperaturverteilung über die Hauptklauen entsprach (hintere Lateralklauen hatten die meisten rehetypischen Veränderungen und die höchsten Temperaturen), konnte keine eindeutige Korrelation zwischen der Klauentemperatur nach der Kalbung und den sichtbaren Reheveränderungen acht Wochen später gefunden werden. Die Temperaturverteilung auf den einzelnen Hauptklauen zeigte in den meisten Fällen (77,3 %) einen um ca. 2-3°C wärmeren Ballenbereich (Rusterholzstelle) im Vergleich zur Klauenspitze. Bei 16,5 % der Klauen waren beide Bereiche gleichwarm (Temperaturunterschied < 1°C) und bei einem geringen Anteil (6,2 %) zeigte sich die Spitze als wärmste Stelle an der Fußungsfläche. Zwischen der Höhe der Rückenfettdicke, der FFS-, BHB- und Glucosekonzentrationen und der Entwicklung einer subklinischen Klauenrehe ergaben sich keine aussagekräftigen Korrelationen. Tendenziell waren eher unterkonditionierte Tiere von Klauenveränderungen betroffen. Schlussfolgerung: Obwohl die Temperaturverteilung auf der Fußungsfläche dem Verteilungsmuster rehetypischer Veränderungen entsprach, war die Thermographie nicht als frühdiagnostisches Mittel zur Erkennung der subklinischen Klauenrehe geeignet. Die Temperaturen zwischen Vorder- und Hinterklauen sowie zwischen Lateral- und Medialklauen unterschieden sich deutlich. Eine direkte Beeinflussung der Klauen durch das Fettmobilisationssyndrom konnte in den hier durchgeführten Untersuchungen nicht gefunden werden.