This degree project examined the effect of time constraint on wing shape and phenotypic variation in wing shape along a latitudinal gradient in the damselfly species Lestes sponsa. Fore and hind wings from individuals originating from three different latitudes: North (66°N), Central (59°N) and South (54°N) Europe were treated with their native temperature and photoperiod. In addition, the north and south populations were treated with south and north conditions respectively, resulting in five groups in total. Morphometric analyses of the wings revealed a positive correlation between body mass and wing centroid size, along with a difference in wing shape between the groups. Forewings and hindwings from the northern group were broader and rounder than wings from the central and southern groups. Additionally, the wings from the transplant groups resembled those of the native group of their treatment, indicating a phenotypic plasticity in wing shape. Lastly, statistical tests of phenotypic variation revealed that variation was highest in relative warp 2 in the forewings and hindwings, and this warp represents the curvature of the wing both upwards/downwards or towards the inside/outside of the wing. These results on phenotypic variation indicate that even in a new or changing environment, L. sponsa could be capable of adapting to varying temperatures and environmental conditions. This study builds our understanding of how this damselfly species, and potentially insects, will be affected by current and future potential climate change.

An optimal wing shape is necessary for the survival of winged insects since it enables different survival strategies and is expected to vary between environments due to different selection pressures. However, few studies have explored wing shape variation across the whole range of a species.  In this study, geographic variation in wing shape in male Lestes sponsa was examined from 14 localities along a latitudinal gradient in Europe. The wings were analyzed using a comparative geometric morphometric approach, where the different shapes were digitized, statistically analyzed, and visualized on thin spline deformation grids. The results showed significant differences in wing shape in both the fore- and hindwings between locations. Wings at some localities showed a slender appearance with a narrow tip, and wings from other localities showed a broader appearance with a convex tip. A significant trend in wing shape was found from the central populations to the northern one. However, no continuous trend in wing shape was found across the latitudinal range suggesting that local abiotic or biotic factors might drive the difference observed.

<p>In this thesis I investigate predator-induced effects on behavioural and life-history characteristics of prey. At any moment a given predator is capable of attacking a small number of prey. However, the mere presence of a predator may impact a much larger number of individuals, as prey implement various behavioural and developmental mechanisms to reduce the risk of predation. It has become increasingly clear that predator induced responses have the potential to affect patterns of species abundance and distribution as well as individual fitness of prey. I study these responses by incorporating field surveys, semi-field experiments and laboratory experiments. All experiments were done in an aquatic environment using fish or large odonate larvae as predators and damselfly-or diving beetle larvae as prey.</p><p>My work highlights the importance of monitoring prey behaviour when studying life-history characteristics. I show that fish presence is an important factor for determining species abundance and distribution of odonates, and that prey behaviour may be a good predictor for fish vulnerability. Larval damselflies react behaviourally to predator presence by reducing activity and/or restricting habitat use. I confirm that such anti-predator responses have positive effects on prey survival in the presence of a predator but negative effects on growth and development of prey. In addition, my results suggest that the increase in per capita food resources for surviving prey following a predation episode (i.e. thinning) can have a stronger positive effect on prey growth and development than the negative effect of anti-predator responses. I also show that the strength of an anti-predator response is dependent on resource availability of the prey, with prey responding less strongly when resources are scarce. My results also indicate that the strength of the anti-predator response of damselfly larvae depends on predator diet and larval age. Predators feeding on prey conspecifics induce a stronger behavioural response in young larva than predators that feed on prey heterospecifics do. This diet-effect was not found in larvae late in ontogeny, due to an increased activity of larva where predators consumed damselflies. Such increased larval activity can be explained as a reaction to a time-constraint. Finally, I found that activity of damselfly larvae is genetically determined and that this has lead to a behavioural syndrome that might limit larval plasticity to a certain activity-range. This phenomenon may have implications for how well larvae are able to react to both biotic and abiotic changes in the environment.</p>

In this thesis I investigate predator-induced effects on behavioural and life-history characteristics of prey. At any moment a given predator is capable of attacking a small number of prey. However, the mere presence of a predator may impact a much larger number of individuals, as prey implement various behavioural and developmental mechanisms to reduce the risk of predation. It has become increasingly clear that predator induced responses have the potential to affect patterns of species abundance and distribution as well as individual fitness of prey. I study these responses by incorporating field surveys, semi-field experiments and laboratory experiments. All experiments were done in an aquatic environment using fish or large odonate larvae as predators and damselfly-or diving beetle larvae as prey. My work highlights the importance of monitoring prey behaviour when studying life-history characteristics. I show that fish presence is an important factor for determining species abundance and distribution of odonates, and that prey behaviour may be a good predictor for fish vulnerability. Larval damselflies react behaviourally to predator presence by reducing activity and/or restricting habitat use. I confirm that such anti-predator responses have positive effects on prey survival in the presence of a predator but negative effects on growth and development of prey. In addition, my results suggest that the increase in per capita food resources for surviving prey following a predation episode (i.e. thinning) can have a stronger positive effect on prey growth and development than the negative effect of anti-predator responses. I also show that the strength of an anti-predator response is dependent on resource availability of the prey, with prey responding less strongly when resources are scarce. My results also indicate that the strength of the anti-predator response of damselfly larvae depends on predator diet and larval age. Predators feeding on prey conspecifics induce a stronger behavioural response in young larva than predators that feed on prey heterospecifics do. This diet-effect was not found in larvae late in ontogeny, due to an increased activity of larva where predators consumed damselflies. Such increased larval activity can be explained as a reaction to a time-constraint. Finally, I found that activity of damselfly larvae is genetically determined and that this has lead to a behavioural syndrome that might limit larval plasticity to a certain activity-range. This phenomenon may have implications for how well larvae are able to react to both biotic and abiotic changes in the environment.

The majority of colours in the natural world are produced via the wavelength selective absorption of light by pigmentation. Some species of both flora and fauna, however, are particularly eye-catching and visually remarkable as a result of the sub-micron, light-manipulating architecture of their outer-integument material. This thesis describes detailed investigations of a range of previously unstudied photonic structures that underpin the creation of the interesting visual appearances of several such species of flora and fauna. These structures were examined using a variety of methods, including optical microscopy, scanning and transmission electron microscopy, focused ion-beam milling and atomic force microscopy. This enabled detailed characterisation of the species’ photonic systems. The degree of order discerned in the species’ photonic structures ranged from: ‘ordered’ systems, where multiple layers of two materials produces metallic and often mirror-like reflections; to ‘quasi-ordered’ systems, where an average periodicity of the structure in all directions gives rise to diffuse, coloured scatter; to disordered systems, where no discernible order is observed, which results in a diffuse, broad-band, white appearance. In addition to this, the range of systems also encompassed: periodicities in one-dimension in the form of multilayering; ‘quasi-two-dimensional’ structures in the form of aligned fibres; and three-dimensional structures formed from arrangements of spherical particles. Alongside this experimental characterisation, an in-depth series of supporting theoretical analyses were undertaken. For the one-dimensional systems studied here, the models’ theoretical reflectance was calculated using analytical methods. For other systems, with more complex structural-geometries, theoretical simulations of their electromagnetic response to incident radiation were carried out using finite-difference-time-domain and finite-element-method numerical modelling approaches. Theoretical modelling results were compared to experimental measurements of each sample's optical properties. These were primarily reflectance measurements, which were taken using a range of techniques appropriate for each specific investigation. In addition to this, a synthetic sample, mimicking the white-appearance and remarkable polarisation-dependant reflectance of one insect’s photonic structure, was created using polymer electrospinning. Using these experimental measurements and theoretical simulation predictions, the structural colour production mechanisms adopted by several species of flora and fauna were elucidated.

Body size governs how temperature affects an organism. As temperature vary on different geographical scales, it mediates activity based on size. How does temperature distribute different sized individuals - and what reproductive fitness follow? This study involves the damselfly Enallagma exsulans and field studies at lake Fayetteville, United States. By measuring body length, temperature, copulatory status, and egg counts, I perform regression analysis to determine the fitness implications of varying temperature. Smaller individuals manage to stay active at higher temperatures, they mate at a higher rate, and they generate more eggs. My study contrasts previous research and highlights both the relevance and complexity of specificity when connecting temperature to fitness. / Kroppsstorlek styr hur temperatur påverkar en organism. Eftersom temperatur varierar på olika geografiska nivåer möjliggörs aktivitet baserat på storlek. Hur fördelar temperatur individer av olika storlekar – och vilka reproduktiva konsekvenser medför det? Den här studien involverar flicksländan Enallagma exsulans och fältarbete vid sjön Fayetteville, USA. Genom att mäta kroppslängd, temperatur, kopulationsstatus och antal ägg, utför jag regressionsanalys för att utröna fitness-implikationerna av varierande temperatur. Mindre individer förmår vara aktiva vid högre temperaturer, de parar sig till högre grad och de genererar fler ägg. Min studie står i kontrast till tidigare forskning och belyser både relevansen och komplexiteten i specificitet, när temperatur kopplas till fitness.

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Made available in DSpace on 2016-12-23T13:47:34Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Giovanni Ribeiro Loiola.pdf: 928388 bytes, checksum: 78051849b34ce27fbc12468e5563d739 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2008-02-22 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Heteragrion consors Selys (Odonata: Megapodagrionidae) é uma espécie de libélula que habita riachos em matas fechadas. Machos permanecem pousados em poleiros as margens de córregos, enquanto fêmeas adquirem parceiros e visitam locais de oviposição. A variação diária da abundância de machos e da temperatura ambiental, o orçamento temporal dos machos; o comportamento reprodutivo e sistema de acasalamento da espécie, a distribuição espacial dos machos e hipóteses de que o comportamento (pousado inerte, pousado flexionando o abdômen, voo de deslocamento, voo de forrageio e voo agonístico) e tamanho corporal dos machos afetam a permanência e mobilidade em poleiros preferenciais e determinam estratégias territoriais distintas foram investigadas. Para alcance dos objetivos, incluindo testes de hipótese, uma população de H. consors foi monitorada por 40 dias na Reserva Biológica de Duas Bocas, Espírito Santo, registrando-se o comportamento de 152 indivíduos, localização no ambiente e tomando-se medidas corporais de 63 indivíduos. A espécie apresenta tolerância térmica limitada a alta incidência de radiação solar e recorre a poleiros sombreados nos horários mais quentes do dia, evitando o aquecimento corporal excessivo. Analisando-se 35 horas de amostragem comportamental, machos permanecem pousados e inertes a maior parte do tempo ( x =98,17%, DP= ± 7,58%), utilizando o mesmo poleiro por vários dias consecutivos ( x =4,06 dias; DP= ± 4,08; amplitude=1-20 dias), raramente realizando voos de deslocamento ( x =0,16%; DP= ± 0,85%), forrageio ( x =0,58%; DP= ± 1,06%) e agonístico ( x =0,34%; DP= ± 2,48%); ou acasalamentos (0,4 acasalamentos/dia). O macho permanece em contato com a fêmea em tandem précopulatório ( x =4,55 minutos; DP= ± 5,13; n=27,3 minutos), cópula ( x =15,98 minutos; DP= ± 7,13; n=79,9 minutos) e guarda pós-copulatória com contato ( x =10,07 minutos; DP= ± 7,8; n=40,3 minutos) de longa duração, evitando a perda do sucesso reprodutivo e competição espermática com rivais. As características comportamentais investigadas e o tamanho corporal não exerceram influência sobre a capacidade de monopolização de pontos específicos no ambiente, embora machos com tamanho corporal menor frequentem poleiros mais altos (r=-0,3; P=0,01; n=135). Não foi possível dissociar diferentes estratégias territoriais com base nas características comportamentais investigadas e tamanho corporal dos machos, mas conflitos aéreos e permanência no mesmo poleiro por vários dias podem significar territorialidade. A seleção sexual (intrasexual e intersexual) aparentemente opera em intensidade baixa na espécie, que apresenta baixo grau de dimorfismo sexual. O sistema de acasalamento não se baseia na monopolização de recursos pelos machos, consistindo em um sistema de acasalamento por encontro limitado, com encontros raríssimos entre machos e fêmeas e disponibilidade abundante de locais oviposição. O impacto da longevidade dos machos sobre o sucesso reprodutivo merece investigação futura, pois tende a ser característica influente na aquisição de parceiras, havendo maior vantagem para machos que vivam mais e explorem maior número de eventos reprodutivos extremamente raros. A abundância de fêmeas, gordura e simetria corporal dos machos, características do substrato submerso nos segmentos com poleiros e a velocidade da corrente hídrica também são variáveis que podem definir a permanência dos machos em um mesmo poleiro e a visitação de fêmeas, merecendo também futuras pesquisas / Heteragrion Consors Selys (Odonata: Megapodagrionidae) is a species of dragonfly inhabits streams in dense forests. Males remain resting perches on the banks of streams, while females acquire partner and visit places of oviposition. The daily variation of the abundance of males and ambient temperature, the time budget of males, the reproductive behavior and mating system of the species, the spatial distribution of males and assumptions that behavior (perching inert, perching flexing the abdomen, transition flight, foraging flight and agonistic flight) and body size of males affect retention and mobility in preferred roosts and determine distinct territorial strategies were investigated. To achieve these goals, including hypothesis tests, a population of H. Consors was monitored for 40 days in Duas Bocas Biological Reserve, Espírito Santo, southeastern region of Brazil, registering the behavior of 152 individuals, location in the environment and taking body measurements of 63 individuals. The species has a limited thermal tolerance to high incidence of solar radiation and uses shaded perches in the hottest times of the day, avoiding excessive body heat. Analyzing the 35 hours of sampling behavioral male inert and remain resting most of the time ( x =98.17%, SD= ± 7.58%), using the same perch for several consecutive days ( x =4.06 days; SD= ± 4.08; range=1-20 days), rarely performing transition flights ( x =0.16%, SD= ± 0.85%), foraging flights ( x =0.58%, SD= ± 1,06%) and agonistic flights ( x =0.34%, SD= ± 2.48%), or mating (0.4 matings/day). The male remains in contact with the female pre-copulatory tandem ( x =4.55 minutes, SD= ± 5.13, n=27.3 minutes), copulation ( x =15.98 minutes, SD= ± 7.13, n=79.9 minutes) and contact post-copulatory guarding ( x =10.07 minutes, SD= ± 7.8, n=40.3 minutes) of long duration, avoiding the loss of reproductive success and sperm competition with rivals. Behavioral characteristics investigated and body size had no influence on the ability to monopolization of specific points in the environment, although males with smaller body size perches attend higher (r=-0.3, P=0.01, n=135). It was not possible to separate different spatial strategies based on behavioral characteristics investigated and body size of males, but air conflicts and stay on the same perch for several days can mean territoriality. Sexual selection (intrasexual and intersexual) apparently operates at low intensity in the species, which has a low degree of sexual dimorphism. The mating system is not based on the monopolization of resources by males, consisting of an encounter-limited mating system, with rare encounters between males and females and abundant availability of oviposition sites. The impact on the longevity of male reproductive success deserves further investigation, because it tends to be characteristic influential in acquiring partner, with greater advantage for males to live longer and explore more reproductive events extremely rare. The abundance of females, fat and body symmetry in males, characteristics of the substrate submerged in segments with perches and speed of the water current are also variables that can determine the permanence of males in the same perch and visitation of females, also deserves further research