Este trabalho investiga os limites à garantia constitucional do direito de defesa no Brasil, partindo de uma análise do uso do território paulista pela Defensoria Pública do Estado de São Paulo (DPESP), criada em 2006. Uma vez que as defensorias públicas oferecem assistência jurídica gratuita quase que exclusivamente aos pobres, o estudo de seus objetos e ações muito contribui para a compreensão destes limites. Assim, a pesquisa tem como objetivo testar a hipótese de que o uso do território paulista pela DPESP é expressão de como o sistema de justiça brasileiro não tem como prioridade a garantia constitucional do direito de defesa. Partindo de uma discussão teórica sobre a relação entre o território e o setor terciário, além da análise de uma série de mapas, o trabalho mostra como a localização das 41 unidades de atendimento da DPESP constitui um primeiro obstáculo ao acesso: na maior parte dos municípios atendidos, as unidades localizam-se nas áreas centrais enquanto os pobres habitam as periferias urbanas. Os deslocamentos representam um custo maior justamente para aqueles que mais necessitam dos serviços. A investigação em cada um dos municípios revela também a insuficiência no número de defensores. Ultrapassando a questão das localizações, a pesquisa analisa ainda os problemas estruturais, evidenciando que o sistema capitalista produz pobreza e concentração de renda, o Estado atende prioritariamente aos interesses empresariais e a justiça concentra seus esforços na garantia da ordem necessária aos negócios. Neste sentido, além de uma abordagem teórica a respeito do capitalismo, do Estado e da justiça, o trabalho recorre a dados empíricos do estado de São Paulo para evidenciar a produção estrutural de pobreza e a seletividade das ações estatais. Para teste da hipótese, são analisados igualmente os aspectos históricos da estruturação do direito na sociedade capitalista, destacando sua importância específica para a garantia dos interesses comerciais. Além disso, fundamentandose em pesquisa bibliográfica, a investigação sobre as origens dos serviços de assistência jurídica gratuita e da criação das defensorias públicas revela como estes são o resultado de difíceis embates políticos e que sua existência não é uma consequência natural do sistema legal pensado pelos ideólogos iluministas. A principal conclusão deste trabalho é que as dificuldades hoje enfrentadas pelas defensorias são, em grande medida, a expressão de uma estrutura social produtora de desigualdades e seletiva na aplicação da justiça. Neste sentido, a solução do problema do acesso à justiça aos mais pobres não se esgota na expansão dos serviços das defensorias. Este é apenas o começo, a partir do qual as desigualdades podem se tornar mais evidentes e as pessoas mais conscientes e exigentes de transformações sociais profundas. / This paper investigates the limits to the constitutional guarantee of the right of defence in Brazil, starting from an analysis of the use of territory by the Public Defender\'s Office from São Paulo (DPESP), established in 2006, in the state of São Paulo. Once the public defenders provide free legal assistance almost exclusively to the poor, the study of their objects and actions could contribute to the understanding of these limits. The research will test the hypothesis that the use of territory in the state of São Paulo by DPESP expresses that the constitutional guarantee of the right of defence is not a priority of the Brazilian justice system. Based on a theoretical discussion on the relationship between the territory and the tertiary sector, as well as analysis of maps, the paper will demonstrate that the location of 41 units of DPESP is an initial barrier to access to their services: in most municipalities, the units are located in central areas while the poor inhabit the urban peripheries. To overcome such distance represents a higher cost precisely to those groups who most need of public services. An exam in each municipality reveals that the quantity of defenders is not enough to meet demand. The research will also analyse structural problems, suggesting that the capitalist system produces poverty and income concentration, the State caters primarily to business interests and justice focuses its efforts on ensuring the order necessary to business. Beyond a theoretical approach about capitalism, the State and justice, the paper draws on empirical data of the state of São Paulo to highlight the structural production of poverty and selectivity of state actions. To test the hypothesis, also are analysed the historical aspects of structuring the law in capitalist society, highlighting its importance to the guarantee of commercial interests. Also, based on literature, the research reveals that the free legal assistance services and the creation of public defender are the result of difficult political clashes and their existence is not a natural consequence of legal system thought by Enlightenment ideologues. The main conclusion of this study is that the difficulties faced by defenders are, to a large extent, the expression of a social structure producing inequalities and selective in the application of justice. The solution to the problem of access to justice for the poor does not end in the expansion of the services of defenders. This should be just the beginning, from which inequality may become more evident and people more aware and demanding of deeper social changes.

Title: “Holy” War on Human Rights - A hermeneutic study of the complex situation of human rights activists in Afghanistan Author: Zandra Bergman Supervisor: Maud Eriksen Examiner: Johanna Romare Department of TheologyMaster program of Religion in Peace and ConflictMaster’s thesis, 15 credits  In September 2020, the latest attempt to bring peace to Afghanistan, the intra-Afghan peace talks formally began. The opening of the peace negotiations failed to produce the long-desired ceasefire. Instead, it marked an increase of violence: a sharp number of deliberate killings of human rights defenders. The purpose of this study is to examine lived experiences of human rights activists in Afghanistan and the complex situation in which they are operating and to gain a deeper understanding of why they have increasingly been subject to violence. Furthermore, it is an attempt to explore the meaning of violence against Afghan human rights activists promoting women's rights. This is a hermeneutic study primarily based on data collected through interviews with two Afghan human rights activists. Rather than touch every topic and present data about an objective reality or truth, the aim is to shed light on the shared experiences of the respondents, providing snapshots of the current situation of Afghan human rights defenders, and to discuss their stories in the light of selected theories. The following research questions have been used to guide the study: (1) How can we understand the complex situation of human rights activists in Afghanistan, and (2) What are the underlying reasons they are being targeted? By adopting mainly, the concepts of hegemony: to decode underlying dimensions of power struggles, and a critical feminist approach: to grasp the gender dimensions of the conflict, I have exposed how my respondents in their positions of human rights defenders bring new life to a historical conflict of interests impinging on the future nature of Afghanistan. Moreover, they expose a recurrent clash between opposing hegemonic aspirations: a struggle over the maintenance of social order in the Afghan society, in which they are being placed at the center.

In this thesis, the legal theory of Robert Cover is employed to analyse the procedural turn of the ECtHR. The text studies how Animal Defenders International v. the United Kingdom (ADI) and subsequent case law relate to the margin of appreciation doctrine and how this can be understood from a Coverian point of view. The margin of appreciation is thus seen as a product of an interplay between paideic and imperial forces where the imperial, or world-maintaining, influences on the doctrine are the strongest. ADI and later cases are read as further accentuating the focus on the nomos of the state relative to competing nomoi already at work in the case law of the procedural turn. The thesis is closed with an amalgamation of Cover’s ideas with the democratic theory of Jacques Derrida which results in a discussion on what a Coverian re-evaluation of the approach outlined in ADI could look like.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-26T20:23:28Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Lais Rabello Zaros.pdf: 1612661 bytes, checksum: f404957fa913dbdcfe5df832d6d62d0a (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-02-12 / The main purpose of this essay is to demonstrate that the use of the alternative dispute resolution (mainly mediation and conciliation) is the most appropriate way to resolve conflicts of family matters. The study found that the alternative dispute resolution have characteristics that make them ideal for the resolution of family conflicts, for its possibility to take into consideration the most profound aspects of the family relations, that lead to most disputes. The adjudication of the controversy may analyze only the superficial aspects of the conflict, leading to the generation of new disputes amongst the members of the family, and does not contribute to the social peace, sought in all family relationships. The Public Defenders have the institutional obligation of using the alternative dispute resolutions, therefore have a key role in the promotion and effective use of non-adversarial methods of resolving family disputes. The practical experience has shown that the ADRs are effective for bringing social peace and justice distribution, ultimate purpose of the Law / O principal objetivo dessa dissertação é demonstrar que a utilização das formas consensuais de resolução de conflitos (principalmente mediação e conciliação) é a maneira mais adequada de resolver as disputas nascidas em Direito de Família. O estudo considerou que os meios consensuais de resolução de disputas possuem características que os tornam ideais para a resolução de conflitos familiares, já que têm a possibilidade de levar em consideração aspectos mais profundos das relações entre as pessoas, que culminam com a ocorrência dos conflitos. A adjudicação estatal, em tais matérias, analisa apenas superficialmente a questão, de modo que não impede a formação de novos conflitos, tampouco pacifica profundamente a relação das partes. A Defensoria Pública do Estado de São Paulo possui como missão institucional a utilização de tais formas consensuais de forma primordial, razão pela qual tem papel fundamental no fomento e na adoção de métodos não-adversariais de solução de conflitos familiares. A experiência prática tem demonstrado que as formas consensuais são eficazes para a pacificação social com justiça, finalidade última do Direito

霸凌事件頻繁出現在各大報章雜誌，霸凌受害者在霸凌事件中經常處於權力不均等的地位，無法主動求援。借鏡西方之成功反霸凌計畫，發現霸凌事件中旁觀者的反應對於揭露、制止霸凌有相當之重要性。本研究將霸凌旁觀者區分為保護者以及局外者，過往研究發現兩者雖同為霸凌事件之旁觀者，然其行為結果卻有截然不同的影響。保護者行為的出現，可使學生對校園安全感受提高並有助於降低霸凌發生率，局外者行為則否。本研究參考Latané 與 Darley（1970）提出之旁觀者決策歷程模式等助人行為理論，推論學生對霸凌的態度、個人責任感，以及同儕團體規範會影響旁觀者的行為傾向，期望透過本研究了解國中學生旁觀霸凌事件的反應傾向，以及影響旁觀者行為之個人及同儕因素。 本研究採取實證典範之調查研究方法，研究樣本包和高雄市都會區國民中學421位學生，並且採用描述性統計、T檢定、單因子變異數分析以及多元迴歸等研究方法，依據受試者在「旁觀者行為」量表、霸凌「態度」量表、「個人責任感」量表以及「同儕團體規範」量表之得分進行統計分析。研究發現如下： 一、高雄市都會區國中學生，具有中度之保護者行為以及局外者行為傾向。 二、女性相較於男性較傾向出現保護者行為，對霸凌持較高的反對態度，且對「朋友」具有較高之個人責任感。 三、學生對「同學」之「個人責任感」受到「年級」所影響，「七年級」學生對於同學之個人責任感高於「八、九年級」學生。 四、學生對於「同學」之「個人責任感」以及「同儕團體規範」可以預測「保護者行為傾向」以及「局外者行為傾向」。 最後，依據本研究的結果提出實務建議與未來研究方向。 / Bullying is frequently reported in major newspapers and magazines. Bullying victims are usually in a disadvantaged position making them unable to call for help on their own. Successful anti-bullying programs in the west have found that bystanders hold an important role in the disclosure or cessation of bullying incidents. This study classified bystanders into defenders and outsiders. Although both are bystanders, defenders could increase a sense of security on campus and reduce the incidence of bullying. Outsiders, on the other hand, could not achieve such effect. Using Latané & Darley, s decision-tree model of bystander intervention, this study hypothesized that personal attitude and responsibility and peer group norm toward bullying would affect bystander behavior in the incidence of bullying. This study aimed to understand the way Taiwanese junior high students responded to bullying and factors that might affect bystander behavior. Using survey research method, data were collected from 421 junior high school students in Kaohsiung Metropolitan Area as samples using questionnaires, including bystander behavior scale, bullying attitude scale, personal responsibility scale, and peer group norms scale. Statistical methods, such as descriptive statistics、t-tests、one way ANOVAs, and multiple regressions, were used, and the results are reported in the following: 1.Junior high school students in Kaohsiung Metropolitan Area had above average scores in their behavioral tendency as defenders or outsiders in incidence of bullying. 2.Female tended to have more defender behavior than male did. Also, female tended to oppose bullying more strongly and showed more sense of personal responsibility if “a friend” was bullied. 3.“Seventh graders” showed stronger sense of personal responsibility than 8th and 9th graders. 4.The sense of personal responsibility if “a classmate” was bullied and peer group norm (peers tended to aid the victims) both predicted behavioral tendency as defenders and outsider. Implications and future directions were discussed.