A proteína miostatina, é um regulador negativo do crescimento muscular e a modulação de sua expressão pode consistir em tratamento para distrofias musculares. Nós estudamos expressão endógena da miostatina no músculos gastrocnêmio e diafragma de 4 modelos murinos de degeneração muscular: os camundongos Dmdmdx, SJL/J, Largemyd e Lama2dy-2J/J. Observamos que a miostatina é menos expressa no músculo gastrocnêmio do que diafragma normal, refletindo um músculo mais sujeito a lesão. Nas quatro linhagens distróficas a miostatina é menos expressa do que em camundongos normais, tanto no músculo gastrocnêmio como diafragma, sem diferença entre os dois. A analise comparativa da degeneração e regeneração muscular mostrou maior correlação da inibição da miostatina com o padrão de degeneração. Nossos resultados sugerem que o processo de degeneração, quando iniciado, e independentemente de seu grau, causa molecular primária, ou músculo afetado, parece atuar de forma similar na inibição da expressão da miostatina, possivelmente como estimulo a regeneração do dano. / Myostatin is a negative regulator of muscle growth, and its inhibition has been considered a therapeutic strategy for muscular dystrophies. We evaluated the endogenous expression of myostatin in the gastrocnemius and diaphragm muscles from 4 mouse dystrophic models including Dmdmdx, SJL/J>, Largemyd and Lama2dy2J/J. In normal mice, we observed that myostatin is less expressed in the gastrocnemius than in the diaphragm, reflecting a muscle most prone to lesions. In the 4 dystrophic models, myostatin expression was reduced, in both gastrocnemius and diaphragm muscles. The comparative analysis of the histopathology of the muscles with the expression of myostatin showed a stronger correlation with the pattern of degeneration then regeneration. Our results suggest that, when started, the process of degeneration of the muscle, independently of the primary molecular defect, or degree, seems to act in a similar pathway leading to the inhibition of the expression of myostatin in the affected muscles, possibly as a stimulus to regeneration of damage.

This study examined the effects of low to moderate doses of manganese (0, 250, or 750 _g per day from PD 1-21) on a comprehensive battery of behaviors in rats during the neonatal period, preweanling period, and in adulthood.

Diabetic retinopathy and age-related macular degeneration are two of the most common retinal diseases in these days, which can lead to partial or full loss of sight. Due to it, it is necessary to create new approaches enabling to detect these diseases and inform the patient about his condition in advance. The main objective of this work is to design and to implement an algorithm for retinal diseases classification based on images of the patient's retina of previously mentioned diseases. In the first part of this work, there is described in detail each stage of each disease and its the most frequent symptoms. In this thesis, there is also a chapter about fundus camera, which is a tool for image creation of human eye retina. In the second part of this thesis, there is proposed an approach for classification of diabetic retinopathy and age-related macular degeneration. There is also a chapter about algorithmic methods which can be used for image processing and object detection in image. The last part of this thesis contains the test results and their evaluation. Assessment of success of proposed and implemented methods is also part of this chapter.

PhD (African Studies) / Department of African Studies / Moral degeneration is rampant among the youth across the globe. Juvenile delinquency and diversified social ills are prevalent and manifesting moral degeneration among the youth. This study sought to explore youth moral degeneration at Makuya area in the Vhembe District, Limpopo Province, South Africa. The study is qualitative and exploratory in nature. Non-probability purposive sampling technique was used to select twenty-eight research participants comprised of the parents, educators, youth, religious leaders, traditional leaders, social workers and SAPS officials. Data was collected using unstructured face-to-face interviews and focus group discussions to gain insights of youth moral degeneration challenges. The narrative analysis method was used to analyse and interpret data. The study found that moral degeneration among the youth at Makuya area is rife and is exemplified by the high rate of teenage pregnancies, teen parenthood, school dropout, alcohol and substance abuse, bullying trends, vandalism and other criminal acts committed by the youth in the Makuya area. The study recommended the use of a multi-pronged comprehensive youth moral regeneration strategy which emphasises the restoration, among the others, humanness, love, discipline, integrity, respect for authority, promotion of accountability and responsibility. / NRF

The cerebellum affects a number of important and complex processes in the organism. It ensures coordination, motor learning and plays an important role in cognitive and affective functions. In the case of cerebellar degeneration, we find not only the movement disorders but also behavioral abnormalities, collectively referred to as cognitive-affective syndrome. The aim of this work was to investigate motor functions during ontogenesis in animal models of hereditary cerebellar degeneration - mutant mice Lurcher and Purkinje cell degeneration using the device for quantitative gait analysis and rotarod. In addition, the effect of physical activity on the extent of ataxia and manifestations in classical behavioral tests was monitored. The results confirmed significant differences in motor skills between mutant and healthy mice; differences were also observed in some gait parameters, especially in walking speed and parameters that correlate with it. The motor functions of most groups of mice did not change during ontogenesis, pcd mice deteriorated their performance on the rotarod. The effect of physical activity was not found, with the exception of Forced swimming test. Physical activity of set intensity did not have any beneficial effect on the motoric manifestations of the mice.

Bei der Herstellung von dickwandigem GJS treten zahlreiche ungeklärte Effekte durch die sehr langsamen Abkühlungs- und Erstarrungsgeschwindigkeiten auf. Bisherige Untersuchungsmethoden ermöglichen keine definierte Temperaturführung analog zum realen Bauteil und benötigen trotzdem große Schmelzemengen und einen hohen Trennaufwand für die Probenherstellung. Das Ziel der Arbeit bestand in der Entwicklung einer Versuchsmethode zur experimentellen Simulation extrem langer Abkühl- und Erstarrungszeiten von GJS. Die Verwendung einer geeigneten Abdeckung der Schmelze zur Minimierung des Mg-Abbrandes und eines druckfesten Kaltwandofens inkl. dynamischer Temperatursteuerung ermöglichte reproduzierbare Versuche zur Einstellung verschiedener Gefügezustände durch Variation der Abkühlregime und des Impfzustandes. Es gelang, Chunkygrafit und Grafitflotation gezielt herzustellen und dadurch die Entstehungsmechanismen wissenschaftlich zu untersuchen. Ein Chunkygrafit-Index-Diagramm konnte erarbeitet werden.

Le système kallicréine-kinines est un système peptidergique complexe impliqué dans les processus inflammatoires, le contrôle du tonus et de la perméabilité vasculaire. Les effets biologiques des kinines sont accomplis par l’intermédiaire de deux types de récepteurs couplés aux protéines G, soit le récepteur B1 (B1R) et le récepteur B2 (B2R). Alors que le B2R est un récepteur constitutif, le B1R est faiblement exprimé en situation physiologique; il est induit par le stress oxydatif, les cytokines pro-inflammatoires (interleukine-1β (IL-1β) et le facteur de nécrose tumorale-α (TNF-α)) ou par des endotoxines bactériennes à la fois au niveau systémique et local, notamment dans la rétine. Des études récentes de notre laboratoire ont montré l’implication du B1R dans la pathogenèse et la progression de la rétinopathie diabétique et de la dégénérescence maculaire liée à l’âge (DMLA). Les objectifs des travaux présentés dans cette thèse consistent à déterminer : 1) le mécanisme par lequel le B1R est impliqué dans la rétinopathie diabétique chez le rat; 2) l’implication de la iNOS en aval dans la cascade inflammatoire activée par le B1R; 3) l’expression et la localisation cellulaire du B1R dans les rétines humaines atteintes de DMLA exsudative et atrophique. Nos résultats ont permis de démontrer une implication du B1R dans la rétinopathie diabétique via l’activation de l’enzyme de synthèse du monoxyde d’azote inductible (iNOS) dans un modèle de diabète de type 1 induit par la streptozotocine (STZ) chez le rat. En plus de sa localisation généralisée dans toute la rétine, le B1R est exprimé dans la couche de l’épithélium pigmentaire qui forme la barrière hémato-rétinienne externe. Les taux d’expression (protéique et ARNm) du B1R, de la iNOS, de la carboxypeptidase M (impliquée dans la biosynthèse des agonistes B1R), de l'IL-1β, du TNF-α, du facteur de croissance de l'endothélium vasculaire A (VEGF-A) et de son récepteur, le VEGF-R2, ainsi que des protéines nitrosylées augmentent à deux semaines dans la rétine diabétique. Ces augmentations ainsi que l’hyperperméabilité vasculaire rétinienne induite par le diabète et par l’injection intravitréenne d’un agoniste du B1R (R-838) sont bloquées par un inhibiteur de la iNOS (1400W) appliqué topiquement à la surface de l’œil pendant 1 semaine (premier article). Les résultats du deuxième article montrent une augmentation significative de l'immunoréactivité du B1R dans les rétines humaines prélevées de patients atteints de DMLA exsudative. Toutefois, les changements d’immunoexpression du B1R ne sont pas significatifs dans les rétines des patients atteints de DMLA atrophique. La réactivité des cellules gliales est plus marquée dans la forme exsudative que dans la forme atrophique de DMLA. Une colocalisation du B1R est observée avec des marqueurs des cellules de Müller, des astrocytes, de la microglie, de la iNOS et de la fibrose, suggérant une implication du B1R dans le processus inflammatoire et la formation de fibrose dans la DMLA exsudative. En revanche, l’expression du B2R demeure stable dans les rétines de DMLA exsudative et atrophique par rapport aux rétines témoins; ce résultat ne supporte pas la possibilité que ce récepteur puisse être impliqué dans la DMLA chez l’humain. / The kallikrein-kinins system is a peptidergic system involved in inflammatory processes, the control of the vascular tone and permeability. These effects are mediated by two G proteincoupled receptors, the Bradykinin type 1 (B1R) and type 2 (B2R) receptors. While the B2R is a constitutive receptor, B1R is almost undetectable in physiological condition; it is, however, induced by oxidative stress, pro-inflammatory cytokines (interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α)) or by bacterial endotoxins at both systemic and local levels, notably in the retina. Recent studies from our laboratory supported an implication of B1R in the pathogenesis and progression of diabetic retinopathy and age-related macular degeneration (AMD). This thesis aims at unraveling: 1) the mechanism by which B1R is involved in diabetic retinopathy in rats; 2) the involvement of iNOS in the inflammatory cascade downstream to the B1R; and, 3) the expression and cellular localization of B1R in human retinae with exudative and atrophic AMD. Our results have shown the implication of B1R in diabetic retinopathy via the activation of the inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in a type 1 model of diabetes induced by streptozotocin (STZ) in rats. In addition to its generalized localization throughout the retina, B1R is expressed in the retinal pigment epithelium which forms the outer blood-retinal barrier. The protein and transcript expression of inflammatory markers; iNOS, carboxypeptidase M, IL-1β, TNF-α, vascular endothelium growth factor A (VEGF-A) and its receptor, VEGF-R2, including B1R as well as nitrosylated proteins are increased in the retina of diabetic rats at 2 weeks post-STZ. These upregulations, as well as the retinal vascular hyperpermeability induced by diabetes and by the intravitreal injection of an B1R agonist (R-838) are blocked by a topical one-week treatment by eye-drop with the selective iNOS inhibitor (1400W) (first manuscript). The results of the second manuscript show significant increases in the immunoreactivity of B1R in exudative AMD retinae. Despite a slight increase, B1R immunostaining does not reach statistical significance in the retina of donors with atrophic AMD. The reactivity of glial cells is more impressive in the exudative than in the atrophic form of AMD. B1R is co-expressed with markers of Müller cells, astrocytes, microglia, iNOS and fibrosis, suggesting an involvement of B1R in the inflammatory events and the formation of fibrosis in exudative AMD. On the other hand, the expression of B2R remains stable in the retinae of exudative and atrophic AMD, supporting a secondary role of this receptor in AMD in humans.

La dégénérescence maculaire liée à l’âge (DMLA) est l’une des principales causes de la perte de vision chez les personnes âgées. Dans la DMLA de forme sèche, le stress oxydatif, l’inflammation et la dysfonction lipidique causent la perte des cellules de l’épithélium pigmentaire rétinien (RPE) qui sont essentielles au maintien des photorécepteurs. Nous avons précédemment démontré qu’un ligand sélectif du CD36 permet de préserver la fonction rétinienne dans un modèle murin de la DMLA. Cependant, l’effet des ligands synthétiques du CD36 dans la protection du RPE n’a jamais été vérifié. L’objectif de cette étude était de caractériser l’effet cytoprotecteur du ligand du CD36 MPE-001 sur le RPE contre le stress oxydatif. Le stress oxydatif a été induit chez la lignée humaine hTERT RPE-1 par le NaIO3. Il a été observé que le MPE-001 diminue la production de superoxydes mitochondriaux et l’apoptose des cellules du RPE sans toutefois affecter le système antioxydant au niveau transcriptionnel. Des essais par immunobuvardage et par immunocytochimie ont montré que le NaIO3 perturbe le flux autophagique, alors que le MPE-001 le rétablit. L’effet protecteur du MPE-001 était complètement aboli par les inhibiteurs de l’autophagie wortmannin et bafilomycine A1. En conclusion, nous avons démontré pour la première fois qu’un ligand du CD36 protège les cellules du RPE contre le stress oxydatif de façon autophagie-dépendante. Nous proposons la modulation du stress oxydatif chez le RPE par l’activation du CD36 comme stratégie potentielle pour traiter la DMLA de forme sèche. / Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a leading cause of irreversible blindness in the elderly population. The retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) is a monolayer of epithelial cells that are critical in maintaining retinal neurons. Oxidative stress, inflammation and defects in lipid clearance are thought to cause damages to the RPE and the eventual loss of photoreceptors in the dry form of AMD. CD36 is a scavenger receptor that plays an important role in inflammation and lipid homeostasis. We have previously shown that stimulation of CD36 by a selective ligand preserves photoreceptor function in high fat high cholesterol diet-fed Apoe-/- mice, a mouse model of AMD. The effect of CD36 ligands on RPE cells protection from oxidative insults, however, had yet to be investigated. In this study, we aimed to study the cytoprotective effect of the CD36 ligand MPE-001 in RPE cells exposed to oxidative stress. Oxidative stress was induced in the human RPE cell line hTERT RPE-1 using NaIO3. MPE-001 was observed to decrease NaIO3-induced mitochondrial superoxide production and apoptosis, with no transcriptional effect on antioxidant enzymes. Immunoblotting and immunostaining showed that NaIO3 disrupts autophagic flux while MPE-001 co-treatment restores it. The protective effect of MPE-001 was completely abolished by the autophagy inhibitors wortmannin and bafilomycin A1. In conclusion, we report for the first time that a CD36 ligand confers protection to RPE cells under oxidative stress through the improvement of autophagic process. We therefore propose modulation of oxidative stress by CD36 ligands as a potential strategy to treat dry AMD.

La pathologie numérique s’est développée ces dernières années grâce à l’avancée récente des algorithmes d’analyse d’images et de la puissance de calcul. Notamment, elle se base de plus en plus sur les images histologiques. Ce format de données a la particularité de révéler les objets biologiques recherchés par les experts en utilisant des marqueurs spécifiques tout en conservant la plus intacte possible l’architecture du tissu. De nombreuses méthodes d’aide au diagnostic à partir de ces images se sont récemment développées afin de guider les pathologistes avec des mesures quantitatives dans l’établissement d’un diagnostic. Les travaux présentés dans cette thèse visent à adresser les défis liés à l’analyse d’images histologiques, et à développer un modèle d’aide au diagnostic se basant principalement sur les relations spatiales, une information que les méthodes existantes n’exploitent que rarement. Une technique d’analyse de la texture à plusieurs échelles est tout d’abord proposée afin de détecter la présence de tissu malades dans les images. Un descripteur d’objets, baptisé Force Histogram Decomposition (FHD), est ensuite introduit dans le but d’extraire les formes et l’organisation spatiale des régions définissant un objet. Finalement, les images histologiques sont décrites par les FHD mesurées à partir de leurs différents types de tissus et des objets biologiques marqués qu’ils contiennent. Les expérimentations intermédiaires ont montré que les FHD parviennent à correctement reconnaitre des objets sur fonds uniformes y compris dans les cas où les relations spatiales ne contiennent à priori pas d’informations pertinentes. De même, la méthode d’analyse de la texture s’avère satisfaisante dans deux types d’applications médicales différents, les images histologiques et celles de fond d’œil, et ses performances sont mises en évidence au travers d’une comparaison avec les méthodes similaires classiquement utilisées pour l’aide au diagnostic. Enfin, la méthode dans son ensemble a été appliquée à l’aide au diagnostic pour établir la sévérité d’un cancer via deux ensembles d’images histologiques, un de foies métastasés de souris dans le contexte du projet ANR SPIRIT, et l’autre de seins humains dans le cadre du challenge CPR 2014 : Nuclear Atypia. L’analyse des relations spatiales et des formes à deux échelles parvient à correctement reconnaitre les grades du cancer métastasé dans 87, 0 % des cas et fourni des indications quant au degré d’atypie nucléaire. Ce qui prouve de fait l’efficacité de la méthode et l’intérêt d’encoder l’organisation spatiale dans ce type d’images particulier. / During the last decade, digital pathology has been improved thanks to the advance of image analysis algorithms and calculus power. Particularly, it is more and more based on histology images. This modality of images presents the advantage of showing only the biological objects targeted by the pathologists using specific stains while preserving as unharmed as possible the tissue structure. Numerous computer-aided diagnosis methods using these images have been developed this past few years in order to assist the medical experts with quantitative measurements. The studies presented in this thesis aim at adressing the challenges related to histology image analysis, as well as at developing an assisted diagnosis model mainly based on spatial relations, an information that currently used methods rarely use. A multiscale texture analysis is first proposed and applied to detect the presence of diseased tissue. A descriptor named Force Histogram Decomposition (FHD) is then introduced in order to extract the shapes and spatial organisation of regions within an object. Finally, histology images are described by the FHD measured on their different types of tissue and also on the stained biological objects inside every types of tissue. Preliminary studies showed that the FHD are able to accurately recognise objects on uniform backgrounds, including when spatial relations are supposed to hold no relevant information. Besides, the texture analysis method proved to be satisfactory in two different medical applications, namely histology images and fundus photographies. The performance of these methods are highlighted by a comparison with the usual approaches in their respectives fields. Finally, the complete method has been applied to assess the severity of cancers on two sets of histology images. The first one is given as part of the ANR project SPIRIT and presents metastatic mice livers. The other one comes from the challenge ICPR 2014 : Nuclear Atypia and contains human breast tissues. The analysis of spatial relations and shapes at two different scales achieves a correct recognition of metastatic cancer grades of 87.0 % and gives insight about the nuclear atypia grade. This proves the efficiency of the method as well as the relevance of measuring the spatial organisation in this particular type of images.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Glutamate clearance by astrocytes is an essential part of physiological excitatory neurotransmission. Failure to adapt or maintain low levels of glutamate in the central nervous system is associated with multiple acute and chronic neurodegenerative diseases. The primary excitatory amino acid transporters (EAATs) in human astrocytes are EAAT1 and EAAT2 (GLAST and GLT-1 respectively in rodents). While the inhibition of a ubiquitously-expressed serine/threonine protein kinase, the calcium/calmodulindependent kinase (CaMKII) results in diminished glutamate uptake in cultured primary rodent astrocytes, the molecular mechanism underlying this regulation is unknown. In order to delineate this mechanism, we use a heterologous expression model to explore CaMKII regulation of EAAT1 and EAAT2. In transiently transfected HEK293T cells, pharmacological inhibition of CaMKII and overexpression of a dominant-negative version of CaMKII (Asp136Asn) reduces [3H]-glutamate uptake by EAAT1, without altering EAAT2 mediated glutamate uptake. Surprisingly, overexpression of a constitutively active autophosphorylation mutant (Thr287Asp) to increase autonomous CaMKII activity and a mutant incapable of autophosphorylation (Thr287Val) had no effect on either EAAT1 or EAAT2 mediated glutamate uptake. Pulldown of FLAGtagged glutamate transporters suggests CaMKII does not interact with EAAT1 or EAAT2. SPOTS peptide arrays and recombinant GST-fusion proteins of the intracellular N- and C-termini of EAAT1 identified two potential phosphorylation sites at residues Thr26 and Thr37 in the N-terminus. Introducing an Ala (a non-phospho mimetic) but not an Asp (phosphomimetic) at Thr37 diminished EAAT1-mediated glutamate uptake, suggesting that the phosphorylation state of this residue is important for constitutive EAAT1 function. In sum, this is the first report of a glutamate transporter being identified as a direct CaMKII substrate. These findings indicate that CaMKII signaling is a critical driver of homeostatic glutamate uptake by EAAT1. Aberrations in basal CaMKII activity disrupt glutamate uptake, which can perpetuate glutamate-mediated excitotoxicity and result in cellular death.