O uso de geotecnologias pode contribuir de forma muito significativa para os estudos em geomorfologia. Considerando os principais componentes desta ciência, morfografia, morfometria, morfogênese e morfocronologia, os modelos digitais para a representação da superfície da Terra podem ser amplamente utilizados na aquisição de muitas destas informações. O uso de Modelos Digitais de Elevação (MDE) há alguns anos, já é uma realidade em estudos envolvendo geomorfologia. A sua utilização permite a aquisição de variáveis e parâmetros objetivos que podem servir à definição de critérios para o agrupamento de unidades geomorfológicas. Podendo, portanto, ser um instrumento valioso para mapeamento de áreas amplas em escalas de 1:50.000 e 1:100.000. Para tanto, é necessário definir os critérios coerentes e os algoritmos de segmentação que oferecem os melhores resultados para as diversas áreas de estudo. Os MDE gerados pela missão Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) são de vasta abrangência e contemplam todo o território nacional brasileiro. Portanto, os dados gerados pela missão podem ser uma importante fonte de informação para mapeamentos com metodologia única. O alcance deste objetivo não garante avanços metodológicos na cartografia geomorfológica, tendo em vista que a possibilidade de comparação entre diferentes cartas geomorfológicas de detalhe ainda é restrita. / Geotechnologies can contribute significantly to geomorphology studies. Whereas the main principles of this science, mophography, morphometry, morphogenesis and morphochronology, the digital models used to represent the Earth surface can be widely utilized in a bunch of these data. Lately, the use of Digital Elevation Model (DEM) can be considered a reality in geomorphology studies. The utilization allows the acquisition of objective variables and parameters that can be suitable for definition of geomorphological units. Hence, can be a valuable tool for wide area mapping using 1:50.000 and 1:100.000 scales. For that reason, it is necessary to define coherent criteria and the proper segmentation algorithm in order to reach better results for different study cases. DEM provided by Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) are wide range and cover the whole national territory. Therefore, data provided by this mission can be an important information for a single methodology mapping project.

This research develops a methodology for determining farm scale land managementunits (LMUs) using soil sampling data, high resolution digital multi-spectral imagery (DMSI) and a digital elevation model (DEM). The LMUs are zones within a paddock suitable for precision agriculture which are managed according to their productive capabilities. Soil sampling and analysis are crucial in depicting landscape characteristics, but costly. Data based on DMSI and DEM is available cheaply and at high resolution.The design and implementation of a two-stage methodology using a spatiallyweighted multivariate classification, for delineating LMUs is described. Utilising data on physical and chemical soil properties collected at 250 sampling locations within a 1780ha farm in Western Australia, the methodology initially classifies sampling points into LMUs based on a spatially weighted similarity matrix. The second stage delineates higher resolution LMU boundaries using DMSI and topographic variables derived from a DEM on a 10m grid across the study area. The method groups sample points and pixels with respect to their characteristics and their spatial relationships, thus forming contiguous, homogenous LMUs that can be adopted in precision agricultural applications. The methodology combines readily available and relatively cheap high resolution data sets with soil properties sampled at low resolution. This minimises cost while still forming LMUs at high resolution.The allocation of pixels to LMUs based on their DMSI and topographic variables has been verified. Yield differences between the LMUs have also been analysed. The results indicate the potential of the approach for precision agriculture and the importance of continued research in this area.

O uso de geotecnologias pode contribuir de forma muito significativa para os estudos em geomorfologia. Considerando os principais componentes desta ciência, morfografia, morfometria, morfogênese e morfocronologia, os modelos digitais para a representação da superfície da Terra podem ser amplamente utilizados na aquisição de muitas destas informações. O uso de Modelos Digitais de Elevação (MDE) há alguns anos, já é uma realidade em estudos envolvendo geomorfologia. A sua utilização permite a aquisição de variáveis e parâmetros objetivos que podem servir à definição de critérios para o agrupamento de unidades geomorfológicas. Podendo, portanto, ser um instrumento valioso para mapeamento de áreas amplas em escalas de 1:50.000 e 1:100.000. Para tanto, é necessário definir os critérios coerentes e os algoritmos de segmentação que oferecem os melhores resultados para as diversas áreas de estudo. Os MDE gerados pela missão Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) são de vasta abrangência e contemplam todo o território nacional brasileiro. Portanto, os dados gerados pela missão podem ser uma importante fonte de informação para mapeamentos com metodologia única. O alcance deste objetivo não garante avanços metodológicos na cartografia geomorfológica, tendo em vista que a possibilidade de comparação entre diferentes cartas geomorfológicas de detalhe ainda é restrita. / Geotechnologies can contribute significantly to geomorphology studies. Whereas the main principles of this science, mophography, morphometry, morphogenesis and morphochronology, the digital models used to represent the Earth surface can be widely utilized in a bunch of these data. Lately, the use of Digital Elevation Model (DEM) can be considered a reality in geomorphology studies. The utilization allows the acquisition of objective variables and parameters that can be suitable for definition of geomorphological units. Hence, can be a valuable tool for wide area mapping using 1:50.000 and 1:100.000 scales. For that reason, it is necessary to define coherent criteria and the proper segmentation algorithm in order to reach better results for different study cases. DEM provided by Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) are wide range and cover the whole national territory. Therefore, data provided by this mission can be an important information for a single methodology mapping project.

The aim of this study was to map the prevalence of aeolian sand dunes in Västerbotten, northern Sweden to find dunes formed during earlier deglaciation phases, which was then preserved in cold-based conditions during the youngest stadial of the Weichselian glaciation. These preserved dunes were expected to be covered by a layer of till and have a rather faint morphology compared to dunes formed during the Holocene. Consequently, high resolution LIDAR-derived images from the Swedish mapping, cadastral and land registration authority (Lantmäteriet) was used to detect the dunes throughout an area covering most of Västerbotten, above the highest coastline and below the mountain range. The analysis resulted in several new findings of aeolian dunes compared to the findings in the quaternary soil map created by the Geological Survey of Sweden. Despite the fact some of the dunes at the LIDAR-derived image had a strange faint appearance, it was quickly evident during the fieldwork that the aeolian sand was not covered by till on any of the dunes visited. The common view during the last decades has been that cold-based ice will not erode or alter the morphology of the landscape beneath the ice. However, this study suggests that hypothesis may not be entirely correct, and therefore it can be hard to use geomorphological implications to reconstruct past glacial environments. Thus, it can be concluded that even under cold-based conditions, preservation of aeolian sand dunes in Västerbotten is probably not very common.

I dagsläget står det svenska kraftnätet inför en stor utmaning om det ska kunna klara av att tillgodose Sveriges växande elbehov. Stora delar av kraftnätet måste förnyas samtidigt som det byggs ut. Vid projektering av nya kraftledningsgator måste geografisk information samlas in för att kunna planera arbetet och representera de möjliga kraftledningsgatorna som höjdmodeller. Det är då viktigt att denna data är korrekt. LiDAR-data är ett bra alternativ då det kan ge en bra bild av marken trots vegetation som kan befinna sig i en eventuell kraftledningsgata. I dagsläget används antingen Lantmäteriets Nationella Höjdmodellen (NH-modellen), eller så genomförs en luftburen laserskanning med hjälp av flygplan. Då NH-modellen ibland kan upplevas som otillräcklig på grund av sin låga upplösning, samtidigt som luftburen laserskanning kan vara kostsamt både ekonomiskt och ur en miljösynpunkt är det intressant att utforska alternativa metoder.    Syftet med detta examensarbete är att genomföra en jämförelseanalys av höjdmodeller genererade med LiDAR-data insamlade med UAV och flygplan för att få svar på vad som väsentligt skiljer dem åt och ifall LiDAR-data insamlat med UAV kan vara ett alternativ till LiDAR-data insamlat med flygplan. Detta görs tillsammans med företagen Nektab och Swescan för att undersöka möjligheterna att kunna erbjuda en ny produkt till sina kunder och uppdragsgivare. Ett tidigare projekterat område utanför Horndal i Dalarna, undersöktes då det fanns tillgängliga LiDAR-data från en tidigare luftburen laserskanning gjord med flygplan. LiDAR-data samlades in med drönare med två olika skanningsmetoder, repetitive och non-repetitive, den 3:e maj 2023. Bearbetning av punktmolnet genomfördes i DJI Terra och Terrasolids programvaror Terrascan och Terramatch. Kvalitetsberäkningar genomfördes i Excel. Höjdmodeller skapades i Esris Arcmap 10.8 och analyser gjordes för att jämföra de olika höjdmodellernas höjdvärden, lutning samt profiler.     Punktmolnen genererade med UAV-LiDAR hade en lägesnoggrannhet i höjd som uppfyllde kraven för HMK-standardnivå 3, och punktmolnet genererat med skanningsmetoden non-repetitive hade en bättre lägesnoggrannhet i höjd än punktmolnet genererat med flygplans-LiDAR. Skillnaderna som kunde upptäckas mellan de olika höjdmodellerna var små och påverkades både av skillnader i klassning och insamlingsmetod. Slutsatsen som drogs är att insamling av LiDAR-data med UAV och generering av kvalitativa höjdmodeller med dessa data är fullt möjligt för mindre områden så som det i det här arbetet. / The Swedish power grid is currently facing a big challenge if it’s going to be able to meet Sweden’s growing demand for electricity. While large parts of the power grid must be updated, there also needs to be a big expansion. When planning new corridors for the powerlines, geographical information must be collected to be able to visualize said corridors as Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) and it is thus important that the data is correct. LiDAR-data is a suitable alternative for this as it can represent the ground well despite any vegetation that might be present in the planned corridor. Currently open-source data from the Swedish National Land Survey, the National Elevation Model (the NH-model), is often used, or the area is mapped with airborne laser-scanning from a plane. However, the NH-model is sometimes not a suitable alternative due to its low resolution, while airborne laser-scanning can be both environmentally and economically costly. It is therefore interesting to explore alternative methods.    The aim of this bachelor thesis is to conduct a comparative analysis between DEMs generated by LiDAR-data collected by UAV and by plane to see where they differ, and if LiDAR-data collected by UAV is a potential alternative to LiDAR-data collected by plane. This will be done in collaboration with Nektab and Swescan to explore the possibility of being able to offer a new product to their customers and clients. A previously planned area outside the Swedish town of Horndal in the county of Dalarna, was used due to already existing plane-collected LiDAR-data. LiDAR-data was collected with an UAV through two different scanner-methods, repetitive and non-repetitive, on the 3rd of May 2023. The processing of the pointclouds were performed in DJI Terra and Terrasolids software Terrascan and Terramatch. Quality calculations and control was done in Excel. DEMs were created in Esris software Arcmap 10.8 and different analyses were performed to compare the DEMs elevation, slope, and profiles.    The point clouds generated from the UAV-LiDAR had a positional accuracy equivalent to the Swedish HMK-standard level 3, and the pointcloud generated from the non-repetitive­ scanner-method had a better positional accuracy for the z-value than the pointcloud generated from the plane-LiDAR. The differences between the DEMs were small and were caused both by difference in classification of the point clouds and collection method. The conclusion is that collection of LiDAR-data through UAV and the generation of high quality DEMs from this data is fully possible for smaller areas such as the one in this thesis.

Digitala terrängmodeller (DTM:er) används i samhället för många viktigafunktioner och behöver därför hållas uppdaterade när förändringar sker.Sverige har en nationell höjdmodell (NH) som innehåller höjddata över helalandet. Uppdateringen av NH förlitar sig mestadels på flygburen laserskanning(FLS). Den flygburna laserskanningsmetoden har generellt en högremätosäkerhet i tätbevuxen skog. Vid exploateringar eller framtida planeradeförändringar i skogsområden kan en mer exakt modell behövas. En utvärdering har genomförts av den handhållna laserskannern ZEB-REVO med syfte att bestämma vilken mätosäkerhet som kan uppnås i tätbevuxenskog, undersöka hur mätosäkerheten förändras med punktavståndet i denproducerade DTM:en samt vilken mätosäkerhet ZEB-REVO har i jämförelsemed NH i samma område. I studien har två skogstyper inkluderats bestående av granskog och tallskog.Mätosäkerheten har bestämts genom att mäta in terrestra kontrollprofiler medtotalstation. För att kunna genomföra en inmätning av kontrollprofiler har ettbruksnät etablerats genom ett fullständigt anslutet polygontåg viahelsatsmätning. De kända punkterna som polygontåget anslutits mot har mättsin med fri stationsetablering via SmartWorx. Resultatet visar att mätosäkerheten förbättras när punktavståndet reduceras.Mätningarna med ZEB-REVO har potential att uppnå en lägre mätosäkerhetän NH i båda skogstyperna. Resultatet för tallskogen visar att ZEB-REVO kanuppnå en lägesosäkerhet på 4-centimetersnivå och en medelavvikelse i höjd på0,018 m mot inmätta kontrollprofiler. Jämförelsen mot kontrollprofiler förområdet i granskogen visar att en medelavvikelse i höjd på 0,058 m gick attuppnå där. ZEB-REVO har potential att förbättra data i NH och data insamlad med ZEBREVOkan ligga till grund för terrängmodellering för projektering.Instrumentet kan även uppnå den bästa noggrannhetsklassningen, klass 1 i SISTS21144:2016 där en maximal medelavvikelse i höjd inte får överstiga 0,02m. / Digital terrain models (DTMs) are used in society for many importantfunctions and therefore need to be kept up to date when changes occur.Sweden has a national height model (NH) that provides height data across thewhole country. The update of NH mostly relies on airborne laser scanning(ALS). The airborne laser scanning method generally has a highermeasurement uncertainty in dense forests. When exploitation or futureplanned changes in forest areas occur, a more accurate model may need to beproduced. An evaluation has been carried out of the handheld laser scanner ZEB-REVO with the aim of determining the instrument's measurement uncertainty indense forests, evaluating how the measurement uncertainty changes with thepoint distance in the produced DTM and the measurement uncertainty ZEBREVOmay achieve in comparison with NH in the same area. The study included two different types of forest consisting of spruce and pineforest trees, respectively. Measurement uncertainty has been determined bymeasuring terrestrial control profiles with a total station. In order to be ableto carry out the measurement of control profiles, a working control networkhas been established through a fully connected traverse using full rounds ofmeasurement. The known points to which the traverse is connected have beenmeasured as free stations using SmartWorx. The results show that the measurement uncertainty improves when the pointdistance is reduced. The measurements with ZEB-REVO have the potential toachieve a lower measurement uncertainty than NH in both forest types. Theresults for the pine forest show that ZEB-REVO can achieve a 4 centimetrelevel uncertainty and an average deviation of height of 0,018 m against themeasured control profiles. The comparison with control profiles for the areain the spruce forest shows that an average deviation in height of 0,058 m wasachievable. ZEB-REVO has the potential to improve data in NH and data collected withZEB-REVO can form the basis for terrain modelling for projectionwork. Theinstrument can also achieve the best accuracy rating 1, for which themaximum mean deviation in height must not exceed 0.02 m.

<p>The main objectives of this work were to investigate Geographical Information Systems techniques for modelling a cross-country trafficability. To accomplished stated tasks, reciprocal relationships between the soil deposits, local hydrology, geology and geomorphology were studied in relation to the study area in South-Eastern Sweden.</p><p>Growing awareness of nowadays users of GIS in general is being concentrated on understanding an importance of soil conditions changed after cross-country trafficability. Therefore, in this thesis, constructing of the Soil Knowledge Database introduced to the genuine geological soil textural classes a new, modified geotechnical division with desirable for off-road ground reasoning measurable factors, like soil permeability, capillarity or Atterberg’s consistency limits.</p><p>Digital Elevation Model, the driving force for landscape studies in the thesis, was carefully examined together with the complementary datasets of the investigated area. Testing of the elevation data was done in association to the hydrological modelling, which resulted with the Wetness Index map. The three distinguishable soil wetness conditions: dry, moist and wet, were obtained, and used consequently for creation of the static ground conditions map, a visible medium of soils susceptibility to for example machine compaction.</p><p>The work resulted with a conceptual scheme for cross-country trafficability modelling, which was put into effect while modeling in GIS. As a final outcome, by combining all processed data together, derivatives were incorporated and draped over the rendered 3D animating scene. A visually aided simulation enabled to concretized theoretical, hypothetical and experimental outcomes into one coherent model of apprised under Multicriterial Evaluation techniques standardized factor maps for ground vehicle maneuverability. Also further steps of research were proposed.</p>

The main objectives of this work were to investigate Geographical Information Systems techniques for modelling a cross-country trafficability. To accomplished stated tasks, reciprocal relationships between the soil deposits, local hydrology, geology and geomorphology were studied in relation to the study area in South-Eastern Sweden. Growing awareness of nowadays users of GIS in general is being concentrated on understanding an importance of soil conditions changed after cross-country trafficability. Therefore, in this thesis, constructing of the Soil Knowledge Database introduced to the genuine geological soil textural classes a new, modified geotechnical division with desirable for off-road ground reasoning measurable factors, like soil permeability, capillarity or Atterberg’s consistency limits. Digital Elevation Model, the driving force for landscape studies in the thesis, was carefully examined together with the complementary datasets of the investigated area. Testing of the elevation data was done in association to the hydrological modelling, which resulted with the Wetness Index map. The three distinguishable soil wetness conditions: dry, moist and wet, were obtained, and used consequently for creation of the static ground conditions map, a visible medium of soils susceptibility to for example machine compaction. The work resulted with a conceptual scheme for cross-country trafficability modelling, which was put into effect while modeling in GIS. As a final outcome, by combining all processed data together, derivatives were incorporated and draped over the rendered 3D animating scene. A visually aided simulation enabled to concretized theoretical, hypothetical and experimental outcomes into one coherent model of apprised under Multicriterial Evaluation techniques standardized factor maps for ground vehicle maneuverability. Also further steps of research were proposed.

Regional landslide risk, as it is most commonly defined, is a product of the following: hazard, vulnerability and exposed population. The first objective of this research project is to estimate the regional landslide hazard level by calculating its probability of slope failure based on maximum slope angles, as estimated using data provided by digital elevation models (DEM). Furthermore, it addresses the impact of DEM resolution on perceived slope angles, using local averaging theory, by comparing the results predicted from DEM datasets of differing resolutions. Although the likelihood that a landslide will occur can be predicted with a hazard assessment model, the extent of the damage inflicted upon a region is a function of vulnerability. This introduces the second objective of this research project: vulnerability assessment. The third and final objective concerns the impact of urbanization and population growth on landslide risk levels.

A growing number of scientists are investigating applications of landscape ecology principles to marine studies, yet few coral reef scientists have examined spatial patterns across entire reefscapes with a holistic ecosystem-based view. This study was an effort to better understand reefscape ecology by quantitatively assessing spatial structures and habitat arrangements using remote sensing and geographic information systems (GIS). Quantifying recurring patterns in reef systems has implications for improving the efficiency of mapping efforts and lowering costs associated with collecting field data and acquiring satellite imagery. If a representative example of a reef is mapped with high accuracy, the data derived from habitat configurations could be extrapolated over a larger region to aid management decisions and focus conservation efforts. The aim of this project was to measure repeating spatial patterns at multiple scales (10s m2 to 10s km2) and to explain the environmental mechanisms which have formed the observed patterns. Because power laws have been recognized in size-frequency distributions of reef habitat patches, this study further investigated whether the property exists for expansive reefs with diverse geologic histories. Intra- and inter-reef patch relationships were studied at three sites: Andavadoaka (Madagascar), Vieques (Puerto Rico), and Saipan (Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands). In situ ecological information, including benthic species composition and abundance, as well as substrate type, was collected with georeferenced video transects. LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) surveys were assembled into digital elevation models (DEMs), while vessel-based acoustic surveys were utilized to empirically tune bathymetry models where LiDAR data were unavailable. A GIS for each site was compiled by overlying groundtruth data, classifications, DEMs, and satellite images. Benthic cover classes were then digitized and analyzed based on a suite of metrics (e.g. patch complexity, principle axes ratio, and neighborhood transitions). Results from metric analyses were extremely comparable between sites suggesting that spatial prediction of habitat arrangements is very plausible. Further implications discussed include developing an automated habitat mapping technique and improving conservation planning and delimitation of marine protected areas.