This thesis considers how an assessment method for reinvestments in the distribution grid can be designed and implemented. The assessment method was created to give long-term estimations of the amount overhead lines that could be substituted with underground cables and how to prioritize between different areas. The regulation of power grid companies was reviewed to highlight important factors for profitable reinvestments. The assessment method was implemented for overhead lines in Ellevio´s distribution grid using the database program FME and validated against real reinvestment decisions in a case study area called Sinntorp. The resulting reinvestment proposals mainly consist of replacing older grid sections and sections where expensive maintenance is planned in the future. The script show similar results as real reinvestment decisions but small differences are noticed related to the script’s hard focus on older grid sections. The script has potential to be used on Ellevio´s entire overhead line network but this requires work to complete essential data. Further validation on new areas are also desired to see if results are reasonable and if the script can be developed to consider more reinvestment factors.

Denna rapport analyserar följderna av en spänningshöjning i ett mellanspänningsnät från 6 kV till12 kV alternativt till 20 kV. Rapporten undersöker ett befintligt elnät i södra Sverige som ägs avMellersta Skånes Kraft ek. För. (MSK). Det består av 177 stycken transformatorer, har ca 2500kunder och överförde totalt runt 32 GWh år 2016.Rapporten är uppdelad i tre delar, den första delen behandlar de tekniska aspekterna av en förhöjdspänningsnivå, den andra delen behandlar de ekonomiska följderna detta kan medföra och dentredje delen presenterar slutsats och diskussion.Elnätet simulerades i programvaran Neplan och elektriska beräkningar utfördes på olika driftfallunder årets månader. Lasterna i nätet fastställdes bland annat genom att använda Velandersmetod. Information och indata av nätets komponenter inhämtades genom produktblad, kontaktmed tillverkare och MSK samt genom diverse litteratur.Rapporten visar att en ökad spänningsnivå i elnätet minskade transmissionsförlusterna ochmedförde lägre kostnader för elnätföretaget. Det medförde också andra tekniska fördelar,exempelvis att spänningsfallet minskade, belastningsgraden av nätets komponenter minskade samtatt kortslutningsströmmen blev lägre. En högre spänningsnivå ökade nätets generering av reaktiveffekt.Elnätföretagets intäktsram förändras vid en förhöjd spänningsnivå, dels till följd av det tillägg somerhålls vid effektivt utnyttjande av elnät, dels då vissa anläggningsdelar i nätet ersätts. Lönsamheteni att investera inför en ökad spänningsnivå berodde på flera faktorer, bland annat vilka typer avanläggningsdelar som behövde ersättas, kapitalstrukturen på investeringen och elnätföretagetskalkylränta. I lönsamhetsanalysen använder rapporten internräntemetoden.I fallet för MSK antogs samtliga av elnätets transformatorer behöva ersättas vid en ökadspänningsnivå, vilket således ökade intäktsramen inför nästa tillsynsperiod med totalt ca 3,4 Mkr.Internräntan för investeringen bestämdes till 4,62%. En viss osäkerhet råder dock kring ett antalav elnätets olika anläggningsdelar (kablar, ledningar och transformatorer) vilket kan påverkainvesterings omfattning, utfall och om nätet kan hantera en förhöjd spänningsnivå i sitt nuvarandeskick. / This report analyses the consequences of an increased voltage level in a medium voltage gridfrom 6 kV to 12 kV alternatively to 20 kV. The report examines an existing electricity grid insouthern Sweden, owned and operated by the power company Mellersta Skånes Kraft ek. För.(MSK). It consists of 177 transformers, has approximately 2500 customers and transferred 32GWh (incl. losses) in 2016.The report is divided into three parts, the first part addresses the technical aspects of an increasedvoltage level, the second part addresses the economic consequences that this implies and thethird part presents the conclusion and discussion.The grid was simulated in Nepal software and electrical calculations were performed on 12different operating modes, one for each month of the year. The loads in the network weredetermined by using Velander's method. Information and input-data of network componentswere obtained through product sheets, direct contact with manufacturers and MSK and as wellas through various literature.The report shows that an increased voltage level in the grid reduced transmission losses andresulted in lower costs for the grid owner. It also brought other technical benefits, such as lowervoltage drops, lower load intensity of network components, and lower short circuit current. Ahigher voltage level increased the network's generation of reactive power.The grid company’s revenue frame changes with an increased voltage level, partly because of thebonus that is obtained through efficient utilization of the grid, partly by replacing certaincomponents in the grid. The profitability of investments imposed by an increased voltage levelquickly became complicated due to several factors. Including what type of components thatneeded replacement, the capital structure of the investment and the electricity company's rate ofinterest. In the profitability analysis, the report uses the internal rate of return method.In the case of MSK it was assumed that all the power grid transformers needed replacement withan increased voltage level, thus increasing the revenue frame for the next supervisory period byapproximately 3.4 million SEK. The internal rate of return for the investment was found at 4.62%.However, some uncertainty exists about several components (cables, wires and transformers) inthe grid, which may affect the profitability of the investment and the grid’s capability to handle anincreased voltage level in its present state.

Det växande invånarantalet i Sverige har under det senaste decenniet lett till ett stort behov av nybyggnationer av bostäder. Till följd av detta har nybyggnationer av bostäder ökat kraftigt. För att bemöta kapacitetsbehovet krävs stora investeringar från elnätsbolagen för att kunna ansluta de nytillkomna bostadsområdena samt för att möjliggöra utbyggnad av ny infrastruktur. Expansionsmöjligheterna som har uppstått i den aktuella kommunen har lett till utbyggnad av elnätet för ett nytt bostadsområde. Syftet med projekteringen är att hitta en rationell lösning för att kunna förse ett exploateringsområde bestående av 19 bostäder med elektricitet. För att uppnå ett önskvärt resultat med projekteringen har företagsriktlinjer och branschstandarder använts. Det projekterade distributionsnätet utformas av radiellt system, vilket innebär att matning enbart sker från ett håll. Distributionsnätet är uppbyggt av två olika fördelningssystem: TN-S och TN-C. Projekteringen omfattar även nätberäkningar som utförts med både optimeringsprogrammet NetBas och även manuellt. De parametrar som har beräknats är spänningsfall, kortslutningsströmmar och utlösningstider. Dimensioneringen av distributionsnätet, som utfördes endast med hjälp av NetBas, resulterade i placering av en nätstation, fem stycken kabelskåp, 0,9 kilometer lågspänningskabel och 0,13 kilometer högspänningskabel. Projektets totala investeringskostnad har approximativt beräknats till 568 000 kronor. / The growing population in Sweden has led to the great need for new housing construction in the last decade. Consequently, new housing construction has increased substantially. To meet the capacity requirement, large investments are required from the electricity grid companies to connect the newly built residential areas and to enable the development of new infrastructure. The expansion opportunities that have arisen in the current municipality have led to the expansion of the grid for a new residential area. The purpose of the project is to find a rational solution to provide an exploitation area of 19 homes with electricity. To achieve a desirable result with the distribution planning, corporate guidelines and industry standards have been used. The projected distribution network is designed by a radial system, which means that power supply takes place only from one direction. The distribution network is made up of two different distribution systems: TN-S and TN-C. The distribution planning also includes network calculations carried out with both optimization software NetBas and manually. The parameters that have been calculated are voltage drops, short-circuit currents and short-circuiting time. The dimension of the distribution network, is calculated only through NetBas, it resulted in the installation of a network station, five cable cabinet, 0.9 kilometers low voltage cable and 0.13 kilometers high voltage cable. The project's total investment cost has approximately been estimated at 568 000 Swedish crowns.

This thesis is a feasibility study of avirtual power plant (VPP) in centralSweden and part of a project withInnoEnergy Instinct and STRI. The VPPconsists of a wind park, small hydroplant as well as solar photovoltaic andenergy storage. The 50 kVsubtransmission network was modeled inorder to evaluate the network servicesthat could be provided by coordinatingexisting distributed energy resources inthe network. Simulations where performedusing measured hourly variations inproduction and consumption of allnetwork nodes. The studied networkservices included both reactive andactive power control.The aim of this thesis is to evaluatethe potential contribution from the VPPfor capacity firming in order to allow abalance responsible party to meet placedbids on the day-ahead spot market,minimize peak load in order to reducesubscribed power, decrease networklosses, the contribution from reactivepower control using the power convertersis studied. Comparisons of the economicgains from spot and balance markets ofthe VPP distributed energy resources aremade for each operation case.Sponsor: InnoEnergy / InnoEnergy Instinct

In the European Union, there is a driver for a change in the electricity system. The trend is to make the system more environmental friendly and improve the markets functionality. This driver often refers to the development towards a smart grid. In order to accelerate innovation in smart grid and technology application, pilot projects need to be deployed. This master thesis has been done as a part of the Stockholm Royal Seaport urban development project that is a pilot project for smart grid on distribution grid level. The aim of this report is to apply market concept and identify regulatory bottlenecks for smart grid. This report has applied market concept and identified several bottlenecks for two aspects of smart grid. The aspects are integration of distributed energy resources in medium and low voltage level and a changing customer behavior. A changing customer behavior contains both demand response and the implementation of electric vehicles. A state-of-art review on feasible solutions that improve the competition and demand side management of electricity market in smart grid and provide incentives to implement smart grid functions has been performed. The emphasis in the market aspect is on how that new actors like aggregators will enter the market and how the dynamic price can reach consumers. The emphasis in the regulatory aspect is on how regulations promote the application of smart grid supporting technologies for both the DSO and the network users. A case study has been performed for EU countries with a deeper look at Sweden. The case study investigates how far that the current regulations have reached on the way to smart grids. A state-of-art review on conclusion papers of pilot projects has been carried out. However, many pilot projects are still ongoing and not included in the review. The result shows there is still a lack of regulatory incentive to promote smart grid development and supporting market structures. Bottlenecks identified for smart grid services in the Swedish electricity market and regulation are related to four areas. These are the metering system, dynamic consumer price, active distributed units with the possibility to provide services to the system and incentives to the DSO to use new smart grid solutions in the work to enable fast and efficient connection of distributed generation. / Stockholm royal seaport project

In this master thesis outage statistics covering tree years from two distribution grids are analyzed with the purpose to deduce which factors yield outages. The statistics are extensive therefore allowing in-depth analysis of both customer and system related factors. From this starting point and as a model of explanation energy not supplied is studied as the consequence and the measurement of the inconvenience caused by outages. Different methods for calculating energy not supplied are developed and studied and put in comparison to the method used in Network Performance Assessment Model, which is the Swedish frame work for regulating electricity distribution. Analysis of the outage statistics show a relation between the type category of customer and outages that can be deduced to the variance and the density associated with that customer category. Prioritization of different customer categories is elevated also in this aspect. The variation in outage frequency between the different categories and parts of the grid is to be proven significant in relation to the energy not supplied, which has impact of the assessment of the Customer Reliability Value in the Network Performance Assessment Model. The calculation of the amount of redundancy performed in the Network Performance Assessment Model is also influenced by the method of calculation for energy not supplied. Finally suggestions of alternatives for diversifying this calculation are made.

The Swedish electricity system is transitioning due to the establishment of climate policy goals and trends related to technology and demographics. The transition has resulted in an increased demand for electricity. The increased demand for electricity in combination with lack of forecasts, planning and coordination between actors in the electricity sector has led to the occurrence of grid congestion. Extending the network is time-consuming and requires substantial investments. Instead, an alternative is to utilise the available grid capacity more efficiently by implementing flexibility solutions. Flexibility can be achieved by implementing incentives such as grid tariffs. This solution has recently gained much attention in Sweden, but it is not apparent how grid tariffs should be designed. The purpose of this thesis is to investigate how distribution grid tariffs could be designed to incentivise different actors to contribute to flexibility in a way that results in an efficient use of the electrical grid. A qualitative study was performed, collecting empirical data through semistructured interviews with actors in the Swedish electricity market. The aim is that the results from this thesis will act as a basis for DSOs planning to design grid tariffs with the purpose to utilise the grid more efficiently. The findings present a ToU capacity charge with off-peak periods that are free of charge as the preferable main price signal in the tariff to achieve efficient utilisation of the grid. It is further argued that other structural elements can complement the ToU capacity charge. A small fixed charge could be added in order to contribute to the cost reflectiveness of the grid tariff. A small energy charge could be incorporated in order to provide consumer with incentives to be flexible below the current metered maximum power and strengthen the signal from the ToU capacity charge. A small energy charge can avert difficulties related to providing incentives below the current metered maximum, as it still can provide some incentives to be flexible, or strengthen the signal from the ToU capacity charge. Further, the energy charge can ensure sustainability if customers respond well to a ToU capacity charge and to compensate solar PV customers. Furthermore, recommendations to further enable the grid tariffs potential to provide price signals include shifting the focus of the revenue cap from CapEx to OpEx and exploring the hampering signals of the energy tax as well as contradicting price signals from the wholesale electricity price. / Det svenska elsystemet genomgår en förändring till följd av införandet av klimatmål och trender relaterade till teknik och demografi. Denna förändring har resulterat i ett ökat effektbehov. Ett ökat effektbehov i kombination med bristande prognostisering, planering och samordning mellan aktörer inom elsektorn har lett till uppkomsten av kapacitetsbrist. Att bygga ut elnätet är tar tid och kräver större investeringar. Ett alternativ är att istället utnyttja det befintliga elnätet mer effektivt genom att implementera flexibilitetslösningar. Flexibilitet kan uppnås genom att införa incitament i form av elnätstariffer. Denna lösning har nyligen fått mycket uppmärksamhet i Sverige, men det är inte klart inte hur dessa elnätstariffer ska utformas. Syftet med detta arbete är att undersöka hur distributionsnätets tariffer kan utformas för att stimulera olika aktörer att bidra med flexibilitet på ett sätt som resulterar i en effektiv användning av det befintliga elnätet. En kvalitativ studie genomfördes där empiriska data samlades in genom semistrukturerade intervjuer med aktörer på den svenska elmarknaden. Syftet är att resultaten från detta arbete ska fungera som ett underlag för nätägare som planerar att utforma elnätstariffer med syftet att utnyttja nätet mer effektivt. Resultaten visar att en ToU-effektavgift med gratis off-peak perioder bör vara den huvudsakliga prissignalen i en elnätstariff som ämnar att utnyttja det befintliga nätet mer effektivt. Det visar även att andra strukturella element kan komplettera ToU-effektavgiften. En mindre fast avgift kan adderas i syfte att göra elnätstariffen mer kostnadsriktig. En mindre energiavgift kan införas för att ge kunder incitament att vara flexibla även under den nuvarande uppmätta maximala effekten och stärka signalen från ToU-effektavgiften. Vidare kan energiavgiften säkerställa tillräckliga intäkter för nätägaren om kunderna svarar bra på en ToU-effektavgift och för att kompensera kunder med solceller. Ytterligare rekommendationer för att möjliggöra prissignaler genom elnätstariffer inkluderar att skifta fokus på intäktsramen från CapEx till OpEx och utforska de hämmande prissignalerna från energiskatten och de motstridiga prissignalerna från elhandelspriset.

I denna rapport analyseras för- och nackdelar med eldistributionssystem av typ TN-C (fyrledarsystem) respektive TN-S (femledarsystem) system. Det finns olika uppfattningar om vilket system som är lämpligast att bygga ut i distributionsnätet (lågspänningsnätet) och i fastigheternas huvudledning. Med hjälp av litteraturstudier och kontakt med olika elföretag och elbolag har olika ståndpunkter diskuterats och därefter har en sammanställning av resultatet tagits fram. Enligt analysen är TN-C det lämpligaste alternativet att använda i distributionsnätet och TN-S bör användas i fastighetens huvudledning. Detta för att kunna uppnå en god och stabil elmiljö. Detta examensarbete skall underlätta val av teknik och förhoppningsvis öka kunskapen angående ämnet. / In this report analysis the advantages and disadvantages of the TN-C (four conductor system) and TN-S (five conductor system) system. There are different opinion about which system is most appropriate to use in the distribution network and the building main lines. With the help of literature studies and contacts with various power companies and electric companies different opinion have been discussed . TN-C is the most appropriate option in the distribution network and TN-S should be used in the building main lines. This for achieving high and stable electrical environment. This thesis will facilitate the choice of technology and hopefully increase the knowledge about the subject.

This work examines the local distribution system in two residential areas in two Swedish towns, Oxelösund and Karlskrona, and studies how integration of PV systems and electric vehicle (EV) charging stations (CS) will affect the present distribution system. The research questions focus on the economic feasibility of a LVDC system, how it compares to a traditional LVAC (low voltage alternating current) system from an economic and technical perspective, and the possibilities a LVDC system brings to other DC component applications. The Swedish government aims to have a fossil-free vehicle fleet by 2030 and one of the measures is no fossil-fuel burning vehicle will be produced and sold in Sweden. This means the number of CS, and the charging infrastructure around these, need to be developed, to contribute to this goal and sustain this transformation. A connected issue is that updates on the regulations for non concession-regulated networks (IKN) in January 2022 extended the basic preconditions and allows possibilities for energy sharing between buildings. The new regulations are also in favor of micro-production and contribute to more decentralised systems. Connections of Renewable Energy Sources (RES) to the distribution system are expected to increase in the coming years. Grid-connected solar PV systems in Sweden have increased by 56% between 2019 and 2020, and at the same time EVs are becoming more apparent on the roads. These DC-(direct current) based technologies, and the possible need to strengthen local networks to accommodate new sources and loads, are bringing new opportunities for low voltage direct current (LVDC) based distribution systems. To answer the research questions, two different models with different concepts, parallel pure DC and parallel AC/DC, were built in simulation software. The conclusion of this study is that a traditional LVAC system is preferable over pure DC system from both economic and technical perspective for already connected areas, such as the two areas in this project. A parallel pure DC system might be preferable in newly built areas with substantial PV and EV, where exchange is wanted between buildings with separate AC grid connections. / Detta examnesarbetet undersöker det lokala distributionssystemet i två bostadsområden, i Oxelösund och Karlskrona. Arbetet fokuserar på hur (nya) anslutningar av solceller och laddstationer för elfordon (CS) kommer att påverka det nuvarande distributionsnätet i områdena. Forskningsfrågorna fokuserar på den ekonomiska genomförbarheten av ett LVDC-system, och hur det är jämfört med ett traditionellt LVAC-system (lågspänningsväxelström) ur ett ekonomiskt och tekniskt perspektiv, samt vilka möjligheter ett LVDC-system kan bidra med till andra DC-komponenttillämpningar. Den svenska regeringen ämnar ha en fossilfri fordonsflotta år 2030 och en av åtgärderna till målet är att sluta producera och sälja fossildrivna fordon i Sverige. Det innebär att antalet CS samt en laddingsinfrastruktur behöver utvecklas för att kunna bidra till målet och upprätthålla omställningen. De senaste uppdateringarna i regelverket för icke koncessionspliktiga nät (IKN) i januari 2022 vidgade de grundläggande förutsättningarna och bidrog till större möjligheter till energidelning mellan flera huskroppar. Det nya regelverket gynnar mikroproduktion och bidrar också till mer decentraliserade system. Anslutningar av RES till distributionsnätet förväntas öka under de kommande åren. Nätanslutna solcellsanläggningar i Sverige ökade med 56% mellan 2019 och 2020, samtidigt som det blir fler och fler elbilar på vägarna. Dessa DC-(likströms) baserade teknik kan öppna upp nya möjligheter för ett lågspänningslikström- (LVDC) baserad distributionssystem. För att besvara forskningsfrågorna byggdes två olika modeller med olika koncept, parallell ren DC och parallell AC/DC i simuleringsprogram. Slutsatsen av denna studien är att ett traditionellt LVAC-system är att föredra framför rent DC-system ur både ekonomiskt och tekniskt perspektiv för redan anslutna områden, som de två områdena i detta projekt. Ett parallellt rent DC-system kan vara att föredra i oanslutna områden, dvs nya bostadsområden under utveckling.

Drinking water systems aim to remove, reduce, and prevent microbial contamination in water by usingmultiple barriers from catchments to consumers. Water distribution networks are vulnerable tocontamination from external sources if they lose their physical or hydraulic integrity. The leading causeof intrusion is losing hydraulic integrity due to low pressure in the water distribution networks. Eventsthat lead to low pressure in the water distribution networks can result in transient or sustained lowpressure lasting from milliseconds in a transient to hours and days in sustained low-pressure events.This study studied two sustained low-pressure events with durations of one to five hours, leading tointrusion in the water distribution network. The first event was the pump shut down, and the secondwas the pipe repair. Different durations, start times, and locations were simulated for the pumpshutdown and pipe repair events. Hydraulic and water quality modelling using EPANET 2.2 was usedto simulate low-pressure events and intrusion of microbial contamination in the drinking waterdistribution networks. Quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) was used to estimate potentialpublic health risks using the Swedish QMRA tool. Campylobacter, Norovirus, and Cryptosporidiumwere selected as reference pathogens for simulating intrusion transport within the drinking waternetwork based on their health problem severity, persistence in water supplies, and resistance to chlorinecompound disinfectants. The study area was taken from the virtual network files generated usingHydroGen. This study showed that the volume of intrusion depended on the magnitude but mainly onthe duration of pressure drop. Also, the length of the pipes experiencing pressure drop and the numberof intrusion nodes affected the volume of intrusion. The location and magnitude of maximum nodalpathogen concentration changed significantly by changing the pump shutdown's start time and locationof pipe repair. Generally, the pump shutdown event affected extended areas with low pressure in thewater distribution network than the pipe repair. The QMRA results showed a considerable infection riskin all studied pump shutdown scenarios. The pipe repair duration was crucial in increasing or decreasingthe infection probability. The findings of hydraulic modelling and QMRA could benefit the watermanagers in deciding mitigation strategies.