Masters Thesis / Un-sewered settlements are provided with the basic water and sanitation systems that comprise, in most cases, of dry sanitation and standpipes. Substantial amounts of wastewater (including greywater) generated from households are discarded untreated into streets, open spaces between shacks, streams and rivers due to the lack of adequate disposal or treatment infrastructures. The negative impacts from unsafe disposal of greywater generated in un-sewered settlements affect both human health and the general environment. Several treatment technologies ranging from the simplest to the more sophisticated have been developed and made available for consideration to deal with the adverse impacts caused by the unsafe discharge of greywater. Some of these treatment technologies have been implemented successfully in certain developing countries worldwide. Amongst these is the anaerobic up-flow batch reactor (AnUBR) which was successfully used for the first time to treat greywater from sewered areas in Jordan, Lebanon and Sri Lanka. The AnUBR has emerged as a localised greywater treatment technology alternative to conventional treatment methods in areas not served by sewer networks. This technology holds promise because of its simplicity of design, high pollutant removal efficiency, absence of energy or chemical consumption, ease with which it can be implemented, cost effectiveness, and low operation and maintenance costs. This technology was originally developed for treating sewage and high strength greywater from hotels. Recently it was further pioneered by INWRDAM (Inter-Islamic Network on Water Resources Development and Management) in the treatment of greywater from sewered areas of developing countries. This technology has not been tested in un-sewered settlements of developing countries which are characterised by the lack of disposal infrastructures despite being suitable for tropical countries. This treatment system is able to produce effluent that meets the quality standard for discharge and irrigation. However, new applications of the AnUBR require further investigation in order to ascertain its feasibility and evaluate its performance in the un-sewered settlement context. Given the promising results reported for the AnUBR application for greywater treatment, this study aims to investigate the performance of the AnUBR as an alternative technology for the treatment of greywater generated in un-sewered settlements and its application in developing countries. A laboratory scale plant encompassing the AnUBR was designed, constructed and investigated using influent greywater collected from two selected case study settlements representing sewered and un-sewered areas. The plant was operated for 20 consecutives days using greywater from both selected sites separately. The influent greywater was analysed prior to feeding the plant and fed intermittently by batch as per designed feeding schedule. The performance of the AnUBR was evaluated mainly by analysing the quality of effluent produced, while the typical application was recommended based on the ability of the plant to produce effluent complying with local regulations and ability to treat greywater regardless of its source. The daily characteristics of influent greywater from both sites during the period of investigation were found to be as follows: temperature: 24 – 29ºC, pH: 7.1 – 7.2, TSS: 117.72 – 2,246.6mg/l, TN: 5.66 – 12.29mg/l, TP: 12.27 – 116.46mg/l, COD: 223.17 – 1,135.32mg/l, BOD5: 98.0 – 383.6mg/l, O&G: 52.22 – 475.29mg/l, e-coli: 8.87x104 – 2.17x107cfu/100ml, and Faecal coliform: 1.49x105 – 2.41x107cfu/100ml. The AnUBR managed to treat greywater to a quality that comply with the general standards for discharge into natural water resources. The final effluent showed a significant decrease in the level of pollutants from the initial values presented above to the following: temperature: 27 – 29 ºC, pH: 7.1 – 7.2, TSS: 5.12 – 12.82mg/l, TN 0.91 – 1.09mg/l, TP: 0.93 – 7.47mg/l, COD: 24.67 – 40.45mg/l, BOD5: 8.59 – 16.0mg/l, O&G: 1.15 – 1.72mg/l, e-coli: 213.3 – 1.12x103cfu/100ml, and Faecal coliform: 461.6 – 1.5x103cfu/100ml. Results obtained showed that the quality of influent greywater (from un-sewered settlements) is similar regardless of the water and sanitation technology. Following the operation of the AnUBR, significant removal of pollutants was observed in all processes. The overall removal efficiency averaged 80 to 95% for O&G and TSS respectively and 50 to 85% for TN and TP. The COD and BOD5 removal averaged 70 to 85% while that of micro-organisms averaged 90 to 99%. However, despite the high removal efficiency recorded the AnUBR may still require a post treatment step in order to improve the quality of effluent. It was concluded that the AnUBR is a viable alternative greywater treatment technology for un-sewered settlements, households or businesses such as hotels and restaurants. The AnUBR is able of treating high polluted greywater to effluent of quality that meets the standards for discharge or reuse provided a post treatment to ensure the complete killing of pathogenic organisms. The result of this study confirms the performance of the AnUBR for the treatment of greywater and provides an understanding of its concept as an alternative to conventional treatment and its application in un-sewered settlements based on local practical investigations.

O presente trabalho estudou o aumento de capacidade de tratamento de um reator UASB (Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket) por meio da adição de material suporte para adesão celular (Biobob®), avaliando-se as eficiências de remoção de matéria orgânica (expressa como DQO demanda química de oxigênio) e sólidos em suspensão (expressos como SST sólidos em suspensão totais). O reator híbrido, no qual a biomassa está presente em suspensão e imobilizada no material suporte, foi submetido a baixos tempos de detenção hidráulica (TDH) e altas velocidades ascensionais (vs). A operação do reator anaeróbio, de volume útil igual a 12,5 m³, foi conduzida em duas etapas. Na primeira o sistema foi operado como um reator de manta de lodo e escoamento ascendente (UASB), com TDH de 8,8 h e velocidade ascensional de 0,63 m.h-1. Na segunda etapa, introduziu-se 5,0 m³ de material suporte Biobob® no leito reacional do reator, transformando-o em reator anaeróbio híbrido (HAnR). Nessa condição, variou-se a vazão de alimentação, tendo o TDH variado entre 7,4 h (vs de 0,66 m.h-1) a 3,9 h (vs de 1,25 m.h-1). Para ambas as etapas o sistema foi alimentado com esgoto sanitário à temperatura ambiente, após tratamento preliminar (gradeamento e caixa de areia). Para condições de operação similares, o reator anaeróbio híbrido (HAnR) apresentou melhor desempenho na remoção de DQO e SST que o reator UASB, acrescendo em até 18% e 30% a eficiência de remoção, respectivamente. Para a velocidade ascensional de 1,25±0,02 m.h-1 e TDH de 3,9±0,1 h, o HAnR apresentou concentrações médias no efluente tratado de 205±46 mg DQOt.L-1 e 73±30 mg SST.L-1 e eficiências de remoção de 55±9% DQOt e 63±14% SST. / The increase of the treatability capacity of a UASB (Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket) reactor by introducing an innovative packing material (Biobob®) in its reaction zone was evaluated. The hybrid anaerobic reactor (HAnR) containing suspended and immobilized biomass was evaluated regarding its efficiency of removing organic matter (expressed as COD chemical oxygen demand) and suspended solids (expressed as TSS total suspended solids) under lower hydraulic detention time (HDT) and higher upflow velocities (v s). The anaerobic reactor operation, with 12.5 m³ of working volume, was conducted in two phases. In the first phase, the system was operated as a conventional UASB reactor with HRT of 8.8 h and vs of 0.63 m.h -1 . In the second phase, 5.0 m³ of packing material Biobob® was introduced inside the reaction bed, changing the reactor configuration from suspended growth to hybrid growth. In this condition, the hybrid anaerobic reactor (HAnR) was subjected to decreasing flowrates with HDT ranging from 7.4 h (vs of 0.66 m.h-1) to 3.9 h (vs of 1.25 m.h-1). For both phases, the feed was domestic wastewater (after screens and grit chambers) at ambient temperature. Under similar operation conditions, the HAnR performed better than the UASB reactor increasing at 18% and 30% the COD and TSS removal efficiencies, respectively. For vs of 1.25±0.02 m.h-1 and HDT of 3.9±1.0 h, the HAnR produced a very high quality effluent, with average COD and TSS concentration of 205±46 mg DQOt.L-1 and 73±30 mg SST.L-1 and removal efficiencies of 55±9% and 63±14% for CODt and SST, respectively.

O principal objeto desta pesquisa foi aprimorar a eficiência de remoção de DQO, DBO, SST e conversão de nitrogênio amoniacal de biofiltro aeróbio submerso (BF), aplicado no pós-tratamento do efluente de um reator anaeróbio compartimentado (RAC). O BF, em escala piloto, foi construído em tubos de PVC, com 0,40 m de diâmetro externo e volume útil de 190,6 L. Para a imobilização celular foram utilizadas, como material suporte, matrizes cúbicas de espuma de poliuretano, em um período total de operação de 180 dias e tempos de detenção hidráulica de 6, 4 e 12 horas, respectivamente. O trabalho de investigação foi dividido em duas fases: na fase I o BF operou por 55 dias com TDH de 6 horas, para a transferência de OD para o sistema foi utilizado uma câmara de saturação não pressurizada; na fase II, o BF operou por 28 dias com TDH de 6 horas; por 30 dias com TDH de 4 horas e no período restante por 67 dias com TDH de 12 horas. Nessa fase a câmara de saturação foi inicialmente removida por não atender à demanda de OD necessária para manter condições aeróbias no interior do BF; foi injetado ar comprimido diretamente no sistema. Foram alcançadas eficiências médias de remoção de DQOb, DBOb e SST; na fase I 32,4%, 39,2% e 62% com concentrações médias no efluente bruto de 143,7 mg DQOb/L, 101,2 mg DBOb/L e 25,1 mg SST/L, respectivamente. Nessa fase, não foi detectada eficiência de conversão de nitrogênio amoniacal. Na fase II, operando com TDH de 6 horas, o BF alcançou eficiências médias de remoção de DQOb, DBOb e SST de 74%, 85% e 85% com concentrações médias no efluente bruto de 63 mg DQOb/L, 15 mg DBOb/L e 13 mg SST/L, respectivamente. Nesse período também não foi detectado processo de nitrificação. Para TDH de 4 horas, as eficiências média de remoção de DQOb, DBOb e SST foram 77%, 70% e 71%, com concentrações médias no efluente bruto de 57 mg DQOb/L, 27 mg DBOb/L e 17 mg SST/L, respectivamente. Durante esse período também não ocorreu conversão de nitrogênio amoniacal. Na fase final, em que o BF operou com TDH de 12 horas, foram encontradas eficiências médias de remoção de DQOb, DBOb e SST de 83%, 73% e 86% com concentrações médias no efluente bruto de 42 mg DQOb/L, 36 mg DBOb/L e 9 mg SST/L, respectivamente. Nesse período a eficiência média de conversão de nitrogênio amoniacal foi de 57,8% com concentração média de 10 mg N-amoniacal/L no efluente bruto. A espuma de poliuretano foi adequada para imobilização da biomassa aeróbia, porém, a lavagem do leito foi dificultada pela mesma devido à sua alta capacidade de absorção. A injeção direta de ar no sistema resultou em considerável aumento da eficiência, produzindo efluente bastante clarificado. / The main object of this research was the removal efficiency improvement of COD, BOD, TSS and ammonia nitrogen conversion in a Submerged Aerated Biofilter (BF), used in the effluent post-treatment of an Anaerobic Baffed reactor (ABR). The BF, was built in pilot scale by PVC tubes with 0,40 m of external diameter and useful volume of 190,6 L. Cubic matrices of polyurethane foam with were used as support for cellular immobilization in an operation period of 180 days with HDT of 6, 4 and 12 hours, respectively. The investigations period was shared in two phases: BF in the phase I operated for 55 days with HDT of 6 hours and the oxygen transferring was done using a chamber not pressured; BF in the phase II operated for 28 days with HDT of 6 hours, 30 days with HDT of 4 hours and on the rest of the investigation period (67 days) with HDT of 12 hours. In this phase the chamber was initially removed due to not attending the DO demand necessary to keep aerobic condition into the BF and, compressed air was directly injected at the system. The removal averages efficiencies of CODr, BODr and SST in the phase I were 32,4%, 39,2% and 62% with average concentrations in the raw effluent of 146 mg CODr/L, 101,2 mg BODr/L and 25,1 mg TSS/L, respectively. Ammonia nitrogen conversion efficiency wasn\'t detected in this. In the phase II, operating with HDT of 6 hours, BF reached averages efficiencies of CODr, BODr and SST of 74%, 85% and 85% with averages concentrations in the raw effluent of 63 mg CODr/L, 15 mg BODr/L and 13 mg TSS/L, respectively. Nitrification process wasn\'t detected in this period too. For HDT of 4 hours, the removal averages efficiencies of CODr, BODr and SST were 77%, 70% and 71% with average concentrations in the raw effluent of 57 mg CODr/L, 27 mg BODr/L and 17 mg TSS/L, respectively. During this period ammonia nitrogen conversion also not occurred. In the ending phase, where BF operated with HDT of 12 hours, removal averages efficiencies found of CODr, BODr and TSS were 83%, 73% and 86% with averages concentrations in the raw effluent of 42 mg CODr/L, 36 mg BODr/L and 9 mg TSS/L, respectively. In this period the ammonia nitrogen conversion medium efficiency was 57,8% with medium concentration in the raw effluent of 10 mg N-ammonia/L. The polyurethane foam was appropriated for aerobic biomass immobilization however the bed washing was harmed by the same one due to its high absorption capacity. The direct air injection into the system resulted in a considerable efficiency increase producing a sufficiently clearly effluent.

Este trabalho teve como finalidade a avaliação da viabilidade técnica e econômica da utilização do processo de ozonização seguido de biofiltro aerado submerso, para melhoria da qualidade de efluente de reator anaeróbio compartimentado, para atender a legislação ambiental no que se refere ao padrão de emissão e para o reúso. A pesquisa foi dividida em três etapas. Na primeira etapa avaliou-se a concentração de ozônio aplicada e o seu tempo de contato através de um planejamento experimental, composto por planejamento fatorial e metodologia de superfície de resposta. Na segunda etapa realizou-se ensaios de isotermas utilizados como critério de escolha para o tipo de carvão ativado granular utilizado como meio suporte do biofiltro aerado submerso. Na terceira etapa operou-se o sistema de pós-tratamento composto por ozônio - biofiltro aerado submerso para avaliação de sua eficiência e comparação com os padrões e critérios de reúso. Na primeira etapa foram encontradas duas condições de maior eficiência para dosagens de 10 mg O3/L em 30 minutos e 30 mg O3/L em 10 minutos. A segunda etapa ficou prejudicada em função do efluente ozonizado ter floculado, com isso interferindo no ensaio de isoterma. Na terceira etapa foram construídos dois biofiltros aerados submersos, um com meio suporte de carvão ativado granular e outro com cubos de espuma de poliuretano. Os dois BFs apresentaram efluente com excelente qualidade final. O BFs com meio suporte de CAG demonstrou ser o mais eficiente entre os dois, teve estabilização mais rápida e produziu efluente final com DQO da ordem de 14,3 mg/L e SST de 6,8 mg/L. O custo do pós-tratamento ficou em torno de R$ 0,25 por metro cúbico para população de 10.000 habitantes e de R$ 0,16 para população de 200.000 habitantes, demonstrando com isso que é um processo viável técnica e economicamente. O reúso agrícola torna-se interessante, visto que, o efluente final apresenta fósforo e nitrato que podem ser consumidos pelas plantas. / This work had as purpose the assessment of the technical and economical viability of ozonization process\' use followed by submerged aerated biofilter, for improvement of the quality of effluent of anaerobic baffed reactor, to attend the environmental legislation in what it refers to the emission pattern and reuse guidelines. The research was divided in three faces. In the first face it was evaluated the concentration of ozone applied and its time of contact through a factorial planning and response surface methodology. In the second face, tests of isotherms were made as choice criterion for the type of granulate activated carbon used as material support of the submerged aerated biofilter. In the third face the post-treatment system composed by ozone - submerged aerated biofilter was operated for assessment of your performance and a comparison with the patterns and reuse criteria. In the first face two conductions of greater performance were found: one with 10 mg O3/L and 30 min and other with 30 mg O3/L and 10 min. The second face was prejudiced in function of the effluent ozonizated to have floculated, with that interfering in the isotherm test. In the third faces two submerged aerated biofilters were built, one with granulate activated carbon and other with polyurethane foam as material supports. The BFs presented effluent with excellent final quality. The BFs with GAC demonstrated to be the most efficient among the two, it had faster stabilization and it produced final effluent with COD of the order of 14,3 mg/L and TSS of 6,8 mg/L. The cost of the post-treatment was around in R$ 0,25 for cubic meter for 10.000 persons and R$ 0,16 for 200.000 persons, demonstrating viable technique and economically of process. The agricultural reuse becomes interesting, because the final effluent presents phosphorus and nitrate that can be consumed by the plants.

O estudo sobre a comunidade microbiana de um sistema de tratamento biológico de águas residuárias é de particular interesse, uma vez que o conhecimento da microbiologia do processo pode levar ao aperfeiçoamento de projetos e ao aumento da eficiência dos sistemas. Este trabalho avaliou a atividade microbiana, particularmente a metanogênica, na lagoa de estabilização anaeróbia da estação de tratamento de esgotos sanitários do município de Cajati - SP. Para isso adotou a taxonomia polifásica na caracterização dos microrganismos e de seus aspectos funcionais, buscando o conhecimento da diversidade dos microrganismos e suas relações nesse tipo de sistema anaeróbio. Objetivou também contribuir para o estabelecimento de um protocolo seguro na realização dos ensaios de atividade metanogênica específica (AME). Os estudos foram realizados com amostras dos sedimento da lagoa coletadas em três períodos diferentes, a saber: outubro/2003, outubro/2004 e dezembro/2004. Durante as amostragens foram determinadas variáveis abióticas como temperatura, condutividade, pH, potencial de óxido-redução e teor de oxigênio dissolvido. Medidas do conteúdo de sólidos totais e voláteis (SV) foram também realizadas. A avaliação da atividade microbiana foi feita por exames microscópicos de contraste de fase e fluorescência, AME, determinação do DNAtotal, FISH - hibridização in-situ com sondas fluorescentes e DGGE - eletroforese em gel com gradiente linear de agentes desnaturantes. Também procedeu-se a contagem de protozoários e análise da presença de algas e cianobactérias. Os resultados revelaram que ocorreu variação nas condições do processo biológico nos períodos amostrados, sendo que em outubro/2004, durante período de fortes chuvas e ventos, a eficiência na redução da DBO foi apenas 18,2%. Nesse período, constatou-se organismos como algas do gênero Chorella sp e cianobactérias do gênero Merismopedia sp. Nas demais coletas a remoção da matéria orgânica medida em DBO foi superior a 80%, com boa atividade anaeróbia. Os resultados mostraram que a relação So/Xo de 0,25 gDQO/g SV foi a mais adequada para determinar o valor de AME, e os ensaios com as amostras de outubro/2003 e dezembro/2004 revelaram valores de AME na faixa de 0,85 a 0,21 mg\'CH IND.4\'/gSV.d. Constatou-se a ocorrência de alterações na estrutura da comunidade microbiana inicial em relação à final do experimento de AME, por meio do DGGE. Verifcou-se também nesses ensaios, que o conteúdo de SV inicial variou entre amostras e substratos, conferindo alta variabilidade ao teste. Os perfís de DGGE das amostras coletadas revelaram variação na estrutura das comunidades microbianas no sedimento, e maior diversidade de bactérias e arquéias quando a lagoa anaeróbia apresentava boa eficiência na redução da DBO. A técnica FISH como adotada não foi eficaz para quantificar e identificar os microrganismos devido ao excesso de hibridizações inespecíficas. Mesmo com suas limitações, a técnica FISH revelou a presença de microrganismos dos Domínios Bacteria e Archaea. Nesse caso, a Família Methanobacteriaceae, a ordem Methanomicrobiales e o gênero Methanosaeta sp. foram confirmados. Nas diferentes coletas, foram identificados protozoários dos gêneros Paramecium sp. e Vorticella sp., e rotíferos dos gêneros Brachionus sp., Trichocerca sp., Synchaeta sp. e Keratella sp. / Microbial diversity studies have remarkable relevance since the knowledge about the microbiology of process can improve plants and system efficiency. This work assessed microbial activity, specially methanogenic, at anaerobic pond for domestic wastewater treatment in the city of Cajati, São Paulo State, Brazil. Poliphasic taxonomy was adopted in onder to contribute to the understanding of microbial community diversity and functionality. As well as to contribute for the establishment of a protocol to the specific methanogenic activity test (SMA). Three periods of sampling were done at the sediment of the anaerobic pond (october 2003, october 2004 and december 2004). Abiotic variables as temperature, conductivity, pH, dissolved oxygen and redox potential were measured at sampling time. TS and VS contents were determined in the samples. Microbial studies were done by observation on optical and fluorescent microscopy, analyse of SMA, totalDNA quantitation, counting of protozoa, analyze of algal and cyanobacteria presence, as well as application of two molecular techniques: Fluorescent in-situ Hybridization (FISH) and Denaturing Gradient Gel Electrophoresis (DGGE). Results showed that general conditions of the anaerobic pond changed among samplings. On October 2004, when the rain and wind were very strong, the organic matter removal efficiency (BOD basis) in the anaerobic pond was low (18.2%) and predominant microorganisms were of aerobic algae, as Chorella sp, and the blue-green algae Merismopedia sp. On the other hand, the removal of organics at other two samplings was more than 80% and the anaerobic microbial activity was verified in the sample. SMA tests showed the food/microorganism rate (F/M) of 0.25 gDQO/g VS was the most suitable to the samples. The results showed SMA values between 0.85 and 0.21 mg\'CH IND.4\'/gVS.d for samples of October 2003 and October 2004. SMA test induced modifications in the structure of the microbial community according to DGGE-profile. In addition, VS content, which was used in the SMA tests as biomass measurement, displayed variable behavior making test results difficult to interpret in some situations. DGGE-profile showed variation in the sediment community structure. Higher bacterial and archaeal diversity was observed when anaerobic pond showed 80%, or more, of DBO removal. FISH technique was not a suitable method to secure quantification and identification of the microorganisms from in excess. In spite of the technique limitations, it was possible to identify microorganisms of Bacteria Domain, Archaea Domain, Methanobacteriaceae Family, Methanomicrobiales Order, and microorganisms belonging to Methanosaeta genus. Paramecium and Vorticella were the protozoans identified in all samplings. Rotifers belonging to genders Brachionus, Trichocerca, Synchaeta and Keratella were also observed.

Les limites de rejets deviennent de plus en plus strictes pour les petites collectivités et les zones sensibles à l’eutrophisation. L’objectif est de mettre en conformité les collectivités au titre des nouvelles obligations (jusqu’au 15 mgNGL.L⁻¹ et 2 mgPtot.L⁻¹) avec une attention particulière sur l’amélioration du traitement des eaux usées des petites collectivités (< 2000 EH).En France, l'utilisation de stations d’épuration par filtres plantés de roseaux (FPR) pour traiter les effluents domestiques de petites communautés (< 2 000 EH) a suivi une augmentation exponentielle au cours des dernières années. La filière de FPR classique permet de bonnes performances épuratoires en termes de MES, DCO et TKN, néanmoins ce procédé présente de faibles taux de dénitrification (NGL) et d'élimination du phosphore (PTOT).L’objectif de ce travail de thèse a été de développer des solutions innovantes pour le traitement des eaux usées domestiques pour les petites collectivités < 2000 EH en utilisant différentes voies d’intensifications et de combinaison de procédés. Une approche intégrée a été suivie avec des expériences en laboratoire, et une étude sur pilotes en conditions réelles pendant 26 mois. Une comparaison des résultats obtenus sur les pilotes avec des résultats obtenus sur des démonstrateurs de pleine échelle a également été effectuée.L’utilisation de zéolite a permis d’améliorer les performances par l’adsorption de NH4-N, avec des concentrations inférieures à 15 mg.L⁻¹ en été, dans une configuration plus profonde des filtres (95 cm) avec de dispositifs d’aération passive. Cependant, des fluctuations ont été observées à baisses températures.Une configuration basée sur la combinaison de conditions non saturées – saturés pour favoriser la pour l’élimination de NGL a été évaluée. De la même façon, la zéolite a permis d’améliorer l’élimination de NH₄-N et favoriser la nitrification. Les concentrations en sortie ont été de 40 et 52 mgNGL.L⁻¹ pour le filtre de zéolite et gravier respectivement.L'utilisation de la recirculation à pleine échelle a permis d'améliorer les performances dans un seul étage non saturé/saturé. Ces résultats sont toutefois préliminaires dans la mesure où ces stations sont en période de démarrage et de maturation et que peu de Bilan 24h étaient disponibles, ce qui rend difficile la comparaison avec les pilotes. / Discharge limits are becoming increasingly stringent for small communities and sensitive eutrophication areas. The objective is to established new community obligations by setting environmental quality targets (up to 15 mgNGL.L⁻¹ and 2 mgPtot.L⁻¹) especially to the improvement of wastewater treatment in small communities (<2000 p.e). In France, the use of Treatment Wetlands to treat domestic wastewater from small communities (<2 000 p.e.) has increased exponentially in recent years. The classical Vertical Flow Treatment Wetland (VFTW) enable very good performances removal in terms of TSS, COD and TKN, nevertheless denitrification (TN) and phosphorus removal (Ptot) are limited. The aim of this work was to develop innovative solutions, allowing the reduction of the footprint and the improvement of the classical French VFTW in terms of nitrogen (N) removal. An integrated approach was followed with pilot scale experiments and full scale systems using real wastewater during 26 months. A comparison between results of pilots and full-scale was also carried out.The use of zeolite allowed to improve the performances by the adsorption of NH₄-N, with lower concentrations in summer (15 mg.L⁻¹), using a compact filter (95 cm) with passive aeration pipes. However, fluctuations were observed at low temperatures decreasing the removal performances.Similarly, a configuration based on the combination of unsaturated-saturated conditions for NGL removal was evaluated. The zeolite was used in the unsaturated layer to improve the NH₄-N removal and nitrification. Indeed, it has been observed that the zeolite improves the purifying performance compared to a filter filled only with gravel. The outlet concentrations were 40 and 52 mgNGL.L⁻¹ for zeolite and gravel filters respectively.The use of recirculation in full scale systems has improved removal performances in unsaturated / saturated single stage. However, these are preliminary results as these stations are in the start-up and maturation period, few 24 h samples were available, which makes the comparison difficult.

The discharge of effluents without proper treatment, in water bodies has been one of the main environmental problems in aquatic systems. Macronutrients launched, such as nitrogen can cause the effect known as eutrophication leading to deterioration of the receiving body, smell, dissolved oxygen reduction, etc. Therefore, it is necessary to the viability of alternative processes to minimize the impact on the environment. Among them we can highlight the adsorption. In this work was up to evaluate the potential of ammonia nitrogen removal of Typha domingensis (Taboa) and activated carbon adsorption process by using synthetic wastewater produced from ammonia chloride solution (NH4Cl). Were used as adsorbents activated carbon, shoot and rhizome the Typha sp. The adsorption experiments were carried out in Wagner shaker with NH4 concentrations of 80, 160, 250 and 350 mg/L; solid sorbent concentration of 4 and 8 g/l and the residence time of 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 105 and 120 min., stirred at a speed of 15 rpm at a temperature 20±2 °C. The initial and resulting concentration was determined by spectrophotometry UV-VIS technique the method Nessler described in Vogel 1991. Was determined specific area and apparent density of the materials. The adsorption isotherms were generated in the models of Langmuir and Freundlich. The values found for specific surface area activated carbon, leaf, root and bagasse were 1357, 8270, 6708 and 10613 m²/g respectively. The resulting values of bulk density for activated carbon, leaf, root and bagasse were 0.885; 0.15; 0.27 and 0.24 g/cm³ respectively. There was little variation in the final concentration of ammonia in relation to the contact time for both materials. Leaf, root and bagasse showed no removal of ammonia at low concentrations (80 and 160 mg/L), so increasing the final concentration of the solution being added to the mass of 8 g/l. Positive results were found in concentrations of 250 and 350 mg/L, with a mean removal the 6 % for the materials. The activated carbon had removed 14 % at a concentration of 80 mg/L weight 4 g/l. The ammonia removal is greater with increasing the amount of activated carbon (8 g/L), since the plant largest removals was the mass 4 g/l of adsorbent. The removal efficiency is small for the temperature used in the experiments (20°C) and improves over the course of increasing contact time. The Freundlich model was the best fit for the activated carbon in the masses of 4 and 8 g/L, resulting correlation coefficient R² = 0.8702 and R² = 0.8936, respectively. However, the activated carbon can be used as an adsorbent for the removal of ammonia in domestic wastewater. The plant did not show satisfactory results ammonia removal at lower concentrations and is not suitable for use in sewage treatment. / O lançamento de efluentes, sem o devido tratamento, em corpos hídricos tem sido um dos principais problemas ambientais dos sistemas aquáticos. Os macronutrientes lançados, como o nitrogênio pode causar o efeito conhecido como eutrofização levando a deterioração do corpo receptor, odor, redução de oxigênio dissolvido, etc. Diante disso, faz-se necessário a viabilização de processos alternativos visando minimizar o impacto no meio ambiente. Entre eles pode-se destacar a adsorção. Neste trabalho teve-se como objetivo avaliar o potencial de remoção de nitrogênio amoniacal da Typha domingensis (Taboa) e do carvão ativado, por processo de adsorção, utilizando solução de cloreto de amônia (NH4Cl). Foram utilizados como adsorventes o carvão ativado, a parte aérea e o rizoma raízes da Typha sp. Os ensaios de adsorção foram realizados no agitador de Wagner com as concentrações de NH4 de 80, 160, 250 e 350 mg/L; concentração de sólido sorvente de 4 e 8 g/L e tempo de residência de 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 105 e 120 min., sob agitação com velocidade de 15 rpm, e temperatura de 20±2°C. A concentração inicial e resultante foi determinada pela técnica de espectrofotometria UV-VIS, pelo método de Nessler. Foi determinada a área específica e densidade aparente dos materiais. Foram geradas as isotermas de adsorção nos modelos de Langmuir e Freundlich. Os valores encontrados de área superficial específica para o carvão ativado, folha, raiz e bagaço foram de 1357, 8270, 6708 e 10613 m²/g respectivamente. Os valores resultantes de densidade aparente para carvão ativado, folha, raiz e bagaço foram 0,885; 0,15; 0,27 e 0,24 g/cm³ respectivamente. Houve pouca variação da concentração final de amônia em relação ao tempo de contato para ambos os materiais. Folha, raiz e bagaço não apresentaram remoção de amônia nas menores concentrações (80 e 160 mg/L) e, sim aumento da concentração final da solução, sendo maior para a massa de 8 g/L. Resultados positivos para estes materiais foram encontrados nas concentrações de 250 e 350 mg/L, apresentando remoção média de 6% para os materiais. O carvão ativado apresentou remoção de 14% na concentração de 80 mg/L com massa de 4 g/L. A remoção de amônia é maior com o aumento da quantidade de carvão ativado (8 g/L), já na planta as maiores remoções foram na massa de 4 g/L de adsorvente. A eficiência de remoção é pequena para a temperatura utilizada nos experimentos (20°C) e melhora com o decorrer do aumento do tempo de contato. O modelo de Freundlich foi o que melhor se ajustou para o carvão ativado nas massas de 4 e 8 g/L, obtendo coeficiente de correlação R² = 0,8702 e R² = 0,8936, respectivamente. Contudo, o carvão ativado pode ser utilizado como adsorvente na remoção de nitrogênio amoniacal em esgoto doméstico. A planta não mostrou resultados satisfatórios de remoção de amônia nas concentrações mais baixas, não sendo indicada para uso em tratamento de esgoto doméstico.

Submitted in fulfillment for the requirements of the degree of Master of Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, 2016. / A large fraction of the world's population, around 1.1 billion people, do not have access to acceptable sources of water. In South Africa there is a growing pressure on the available freshwater resources. New sources of freshwater supply are becoming increasingly scarce, expensive or politically controversial. This has led to large scale interest in the application of water reclamation and reuse of domestic, mining and industrial wastewater as an alternative water supply sources. This is becoming critical to sustain development and economic growth in the Southern African region. This research aims at providing both social and scientific information on the importance of greywater reuse and recycling as an alternate source to aid water demand management under South African conditions. The approach to this research work was divided into two main thrusts: the first was to gain an understanding of the public attitudes towards the idea of reusing greywater that is usually perceived as wastewater which pose health concerns. The second was to provide an understanding of typical greywater quality in a peri-urban community in Durban, South Africa as well as investigate the suitability of a horizontal roughing filtration system in reducing pollutant strength of contaminants found in greywater for non-potable reuse applications. In order to achieve the central aim of this research study, the following objectives were considered: • Investigation of public perception and attitudes towards the reuse of greywater. • Determination of greywater quality in a peri-urban community in Durban South Africa. • Investigation of the performance of a horizontal roughing filtration system for the treatment of greywater collected from a peri-urban community in Durban, South Africa. It was important to have an understanding of public perception and attitudes towards the reuse of greywater because of the fact that the success of any reuse application depends on the acceptance of the public. The methodological approach for this aspect of the research work involved administering of structured questionnaires to residents within the community through field visits. The questionnaire addressed issues related to attitudes towards the reuse of greywater, perceived advantages related to the reuse of greywater and concerns related to public health issues regarding the reuse of greywater. The successful implementation of any greywater treatment process depends largely on its characteristics in terms of the pollutant strength. The methodological approach for this aspect of the research work involved physico- chemical characterization of the greywater collected from different sources within the households in the peri-urban community. Greywater samples were collected from the kitchen, shower and laundry within each of the households. This aspect of the research work was undertaken to gain an understanding of greywater quality from different sources within and between households. In order to achieve the third objective of this research work, a pilot plant horizontal roughing filtration system was designed and fabricated for the treatment of greywater. The system consisted of three compartments containing different sizes of gravel that served as the filter media. This was done in order to investigate the effect of varying filter media size on the performance of the horizontal roughing filtration system in treating greywater. The system had an adjustable manual valve used in varying the filtration rate. The impact of varying filtration rate on the performance of the horizontal roughing filtration system in treating greywater was also investigated. The main findings of this research were: • From the survey conducted, the percentage of the public willing to accept the reuse of greywater within the community was far higher than the percentage opposing its reuse. Concerns have often been expressed by the public that the reuse of greywater could pose possible adverse effects to public health. However, in this pilot study it was found that a higher percentage of respondents (>60%) disagree that the reuse of greywater could negatively impact on public health compared to less than 20% of the respondents that agree. An interesting finding of this study was that a greater percentage of the respondents were willing to have a dual water distribution system installed in their current place of residence. • The physico-chemical characterization of greywater from different sources within the households investigated indicated that, the quality of greywater varies considerably between all sources and from household to household. None of the households investigated produced the same quality of greywater. It was also found that greywater generated from the kitchen contains the most significant pollutants in terms of the physico-chemical parameters considered in this study compared to the other sources within the household. • The pilot plant horizontal roughing filtration system demonstrated its suitability for the treatment of greywater for non-potable reuse applications. It was observed that 90% turbidity and 63% Chemical Oxygen Demand reduction was achieved over the entire duration of operation of the horizontal roughing filter. It was also observed that the removal efficiency was significantly higher in the compartment with the smallest filter media size and the removal efficiency was significantly higher at lower filtration rates. It is therefore concluded from the investigation conducted in this research that the role of the public is a vital component in the development and implementation of any reuse system / application. It was found that there was a relatively high level of acceptance for the reuse of greywater among the respondents within the community where the study was conducted. The greywater characteristics results obtained from this investigation indicated the necessity of treatment prior to disposal in the environment. Also, a low BOD5/COD ratio of 0.24, which is significantly lower than 0.5, is an indication that the greywater generated from the community cannot be easily treated using biological treatment processes and/or technologies. The pilot horizontal roughing filtration system used for the treatment of greywater in this study demonstrated its suitability for the treatment of greywater for non-potable reuse applications such as irrigation, toilet flushing and washing activities. / M

En France, 13 millions de personnes sont concernées par l’assainissement non collectif (ANC). Un système d’ANC est composé d’un prétraitement, en général une fosse toutes eaux, suivi d’un système de traitement. Les récentes évolutions réglementaires ouvrent un éventail de possibilités quant aux systèmes de traitement possibles pour traiter les eaux usées. L’objectif de ce travail de thèse est de développer un système de traitement des eaux usées à partir de biomasse végétale issue de déchets de l’agriculture. Un suivi analytique de six habitations individuelles a permis l’étude des caractéristiques des eaux usées avant et après leur entrée dans le système de prétraitement. Ces eaux sont caractérisées par une grande variabilité d’une famille à une autre ainsi qu’au sein d’une même habitation. La charge organique par habitant à traiter est en moyenne de 60 gDBO5.j-1 pour un volume d’eau rejeté de 90 L.j-1, soit des effluents deux fois plus concentrés que ce qu’indique la réglementation. Le dimensionnement et le suivi d’un pilote à l’échelle laboratoire ont permis d’évaluer la potentialité de plusieurs milieux végétaux pour le traitement des eaux usées prétraitées. Ils sont comparés à un milieu de référence ayant une efficacité prouvée en traitement des eaux. L’étude des performances épuratoires, pour deux charges volumiques différentes, des différents milieux a été réalisée sur quarante semaines. Cette étude a permis l’élaboration et la mise en place d’un pilote in situ à l’échelle de la maison individuelle. La démarche de l’analyse de cycle de vie a été appliquée au pilote in situ dans le but d’optimiser le procédé mis en place. De plus, l’ACV a permis d’effectuer une comparaison avec différents procédés existants. / In France, 13 million people are concerned by on-site wastewater treatment (OSWWT). An OSWWT system consists of pretreatment, usually a septic tank, followed by a treatment system. Recent regulatory developments open up a range of possibilities as to possible treatment systems for wastewater treatment. The objective of this thesis is to develop a system of wastewater treatment based on plant biomass from waste of agriculture. Analytical monitoring of six individual houses allowed the study of the characteristics of the wastewater before and after their entry into the pretreatment system. Waters are characterized by a wide variability from one family to another and from the same house. The organic load per person is treating an average of 60 gDBO5.j-1 for a volume of water discharged 90 L.j-1, that to say effluent two times more concentrated than indicated by the regulations. The design and monitoring of a pilot scale laboratory were used to evaluate the potential of several plant biomass for the treatment of pretreated wastewater. They are compared to a reference medium with proven effectiveness in water treatment. The study of treatment performance for two different volume loads of different backgrounds was performed during forty weeks. This study resulted in the development and implementation of a pilot in situ for single house. The approach of life cycle analysis has been applied to in situ pilot in order to optimize the process in place. In addition, LCA has to make a comparison with different existing OSWWT.

Este trabalho avaliou a técnica de dosagem variável de coagulante em função da variação da turbidez do esgoto afluente a sistema de pós-tratamento por flotação do efluente de reatores UASB, localizado em Campinas, SP. Utilizou-se equipamento do tipo Flotateste para a flotação em escala de laboratório, sendo fixados os parâmetros: Tmr = 15 s; Gmr = 800 \'S POT.-1\'; Tfloc = 20 min; Gfloc = 90 \'S POT.-1\'; Psat = 5,00 Bar. Foram estudadas quatro velocidades de flotação (Vf), entre 8 à 20 cm/min. Na fase 1 da pesquisa estudou-se os coagulantes \'AL IND.2\'(\'SO IND.4\')\'IND.3\', PAC e \'FE\'Cl IND.3\', sendo determinadas as melhores dosagens para o horário das 12:00 horas. Posteriormente, na segunda fase, foram fixadas as melhores dosagens de cada coagulante e associada dosagens variadas de polímeros catiônico, aniônico e não iônico. Em seguida, na fase 3, foi realizada avaliação temporal, com ensaios realizados em seis diferentes horários do dia, estabelecendo uma razão entre a variação da turbidez afluente com a dosagem de coagulante. Finalmente, na quarta fase, foram aplicados quatro cenários de dosagens em doze horários diferentes ao longo de 24 horas. Para fase 1, verificou-se remoção de SST, DQO e fósforo para as dosagens de \'AL IND.2\'(\'SO IND.4\')\'IND.3\' (11,77mg \'AL IND.2\'O IND.3\'/L), 76,5%; 67,6% e 63,9%; PAC (8,45 mg \'AL IND.2\'O IND.3\'/L), 62,5%; 75,0% e 82,7%; e \'FE\'CL IND.3\' (24,38 mg\'FE\'/L), 60,0%; 55,9% e 90,3%, respectivamente, para Vf = 16 cm/min. Na fase 2, determinou-se como melhor polímero, para ambos coagulantes, o polímero catiônico (PC), sendo associado às melhores dosagens definidas na fase1. Desta maneira na fase 2 verificou-se remoção de SST, DQO e fósforo para as dosagens associadas de \'AL IND.2\'(\'SO IND.4\')\'IND.3\' + PC (11,77 mg\'AL IND.2\'O IND.3\'/L + 1,00 mg PC/L), 94,4%, 88,6% e 70,4%; PAC + PC (8,45 mg\'AL IND.2\'O IND.3\'/L + 1,00 mg PC/L), 94,7%, 62,3% e 88,8%; e \'FE\'CL IND.3\' + PC (24,38 mg\'FE\'/L + 1,00 mg PC/L), 77,3%, 61,6% e 91,6%, respectivamente. O cloreto férrico foi escolhido para ser utilizado nas fases seguintes devido a capacidade de precipitação de sulfeto o qual atingiu concentrações de até 15 mg/L no efluente anaeróbio. Em adição, foram fixadas as dosagens de polímero catiônico em 1,00 mg/L. Assim, para fase 3, a aplicação de dosagem variada entre 12,07 a 25,51 mg\'FE\'/L, para seis diferentes horários resultou em DQO < 50 mg/L e Fósforo < 0,50 mg/L para Vf = 16 cm/min. A aplicação de razão entre a dosagem de \'FE POT.+3\' e a turbidez afluente (RDmT) de 0,463 mg\'FE POT.+3\'/L.UNT (para turbidez < 50 UNT) e 0,244 mg\'FE POT.+3\'/L.UNT (para turbidez >50 UNT) na fase 4, garantiu para todas as velocidades de flotação estudadas turbidez < 15 UNT em 100% dos ensaios. Em adição, ao se realizar correlação entre a concentração de SST no efluente da FAD e a turbidez, chegou-se a conclusão de que este cenário atingiu remoção de lodo próxima a dosagem de \'FE\'CL IND.3\' máxima definidas na fase 3 (74 mg\'FE\'CL IND.3\'/L), com economia de 27,8% no consumo do coagulante. / This study evaluated the variable coagulant dosage technique according to the variation in turbidity of the influent sewage of the post-treatment flotation system of the UASB reactor effluents, located in Campinas, SP. Laboratory scale flotation equipment was used, with fixed parameters: Tmr = 15 s; Gmr = 800 \'S POT.-1\'; Tfloc = 20 min; Gfloc = 90 \'S POT.-1\'; Psat = 5,00 Bar. Four flotation velocities (Vf), between 8 a 20 cm/min, were studied. Phase 1 of the research studied the coagulants \'AL IND.2\'(\'SO IND.4\')\'IND.3\', PAC e \'FE\'CL IND.3\', being determined the best dosages for 12:00 pm. In phase 2 the best dosages of each coagulant were fixed and the associated cationic, anionic and nonionic polymer dosages were varied. In phase 3 experiments were taken at six different periods of the day, establishing a ratio between the variation in influent turbidity and coagulant dosage. In the fourth phase, four different dosage scenarios were applied at twelve different periods during a 24 hour day, to verify the best dosage scenario. In phase 1, the removal of TSS, COD and phosphorus was verified to the dosages of \'AL IND.2\'(\'SO IND.4\')\'IND.3\' (11,77 mg\'AL IND.2\'O IND.3\'/L), 76,5%; 67,6% and 63,9%; PAC (8,45 mg\'AL IND.2\'O IND.3\'/L), 62,5%; 75,0% and 82,7%; and \'FE\'CL IND.3\' (24,38 mg\'FE POT.+3\'/L), 60,0%; 55,9% e 90,3%, respectively, for Vf = 16 cm/min. In phase 2 the cationic polymer (PC) was determined to be the best polymer for both coagulants, when applied to the best dosages determined in phase 1. This way, in phase 2 the removal of TSS, COD and phosphorus was verified to the associated dosages of \'AL IND.2\'(\'SO IND.4\')\'IND.3\' + PC (11,77 mg\'AL IND.2\'O IND.3\'/L + 1,00 mg PC/L), 94,4%, 88,6% and 70,4%; PAC + PC (8,45 mg\'AL IND.2\'O IND.3\'/L + 1,00 mg PC/L), 94,7%, 62,3% and 88,8%; and \'FE\'CL IND.3\' + PC (24,38 mg\'FE POT.+3\'/L + 1,00 mg PC/L), 77,3%, 61,6% e 91,6%, respectively. Ferric chloride was chosen in the following phases due to its sulfide precipitation ability, reaching concentrations of up to 15 mg/L in the anaerobic effluent. In addition, the cationic polymer dosages were fixed to 1,00 mg/L. Thus, in phase 3, the dosage, varying between 12,07 to 25,51 mg\'FE POT.+3\'/L, applied to six different periods resulted, to Vf = 16 cm/min, in COD < 50 mg/L and phosphorus < 0,50 mg/L. The ratio between the dosage of \'FE POT.+3\' and the influent turbidity (RDmT) of 0,463 mg\'FE POT.+3\'/L.UNT (for turbidities < 50 NTU) and 0,244 mg\'FE POT.+3\'/L.UNT (for turbidities \'< OU =\' 50 NTU) when applied in phase 4, ensured, in 100% of the experiments, turbidity < 15 NTU for the studied flotation velocities. In addition, when correlating the concentration of TSS in FAD effluents with the turbidity, the conclusion was that this scenario reached a sludge removal close to that obtained by the maximum \'FE\'CL IND.3\' dosage defined in phase 3 (74 mg\'FE\'CL IND.3\'/L), with an economy of 27,8% in coagulant consumption.