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Comme la représentation théâtrale est une forme d’art fugitive qui, en raison de son caractère performatif, possède son propre monde fictionnel, la question de l’oposition entre représentation et réalité occupe une place centrale dans les études théâtrales. Ainsi, les œuvres scèniques d’un metteur en scène comme Frank Castorf représentent des objets d’analyse particulièrement appropriés. Parce que Castorf met d’abord l’accent sur le moment présent et la réalité de la représentation théâtrale, il est légitime de se demander quelle est la part qu’occupe la représentation d’un monde fictionel dans ses spectacles. Ce travail vise précisément à identifier l’importance qu’accorde Castorf à la performativité dans deux adaptations théâtrales des romans de Dostoïevski Les démons et l’Idiot. Comme notre société donne une place grandissante aux médias reproductibles tels que la télévision et le cinéma, et que l’être humain tend toujours davantage à se méditiaser lui-même, le théâtre comme toutes les autres formes d’art s’en trouve transformé. C’est dans cette optique que ces deux adaptations théâtrales ont donné lieu à d’autres manifestations artistiques, soit deux films et deux livres. Cet ouvrage retrace également le processus de re-représentation, c’est-à-dire du passage d’un média à un autre, dans le but d’analyser l’interrelation entre ces œuvres ainsi que de comprendre les raisons qui ont poussé le metteur en scène et son théâtre, la Volksbühne Berlin, à transposer d’abord des romans en spectacle de théâtre pour ensuite en faire des films et des livres. De plus, malgré son utilisation croissante au théâtre, la vidéo représente encore pour certains puristes un envahisseur à bannir. Elle introduirait la perte de l’essence du théâtre : le caractère performatif, qui consiste en une rencontre du public et des acteurs dans un même espace-temps. Par contre, les images vidéo-projetées en direct peuvent conserver une part de performativité puisqu’elles sont susceptibles d’influer sur le spectateur, et inversement. En prenant comme exemple l’Idiot de Frank Castorf, ce travail montre comment les caméras et leur dispositif de transmission en direct ont la capacité de se substituer aux principaux objets du spectacle théâtral : les acteurs. / As a theatre performance is a volatile piece of art, as it has a performative character, and therefore possesses its own fictional world, the two concepts “representation” and “reality” are of meaning in theater studies. In this context, the works of the Berliner theater director Frank Castorf represent particularly rich research objects. Because Castorf give a lot of value to the present and the reality of the performance, it is to ask: what role does the representation of a fictional world play in the productions of Castorf? This work aims to first identify how important the performativity for Castorf in two theater adaptations of Dostoevsky's novels is for the stage, Die Dämonen und Der Idiot. Since man mediates his own phenomenon more and more and since in this context, the reproducible media like television or cinema has an overwhelming and increasing importance in our consumer society, the theater, like other art forms, has changed. For this reason, the two theatrical adaptations were transferred to other media, that is, in films and books. This work describes the process of "re-representation", i.e. the transition from one medium to another. Here will be analyzed the connections between the various works of art and the motivations of the Berliner director and his theater, The Volksbühne Berlin, to “repurpose” the novels in plays and plays in movies and books. Moreover, despite their increasing integration in theater, video projections are still seen by certain number of puristas as invaders to be proscribed because of their threat to theatre’s essence: performativity as the encounter between actors and an audience in the same space, at the same time. However, live video-projection images can maintain a performative nature since they are likely to generate mutual influences between themselves and the members of the audience. By analyzing Frank Castorf’s Der Idiot, this thesis shows how cameras and their transmission devices have the capacity to be substituted to the main objects of the theatrical show: actors. / Da eine Theateraufführung ein flüchtiges Kunstwerk ist, weil sie einen performativen Charakter hat und deswegen ihre eigene fiktionale Welt besitzt, ist das Begriffspaar Darstellung/Wirklichkeit in der Theaterwissenschaft von Bedeutung. In diesem Zusammenhang stellen die Theaterwerke des Berliner Regisseurs Frank Castorf besonders komplexe Forschungsgegenstände dar. Weil Castorf der Gegenwart und der Wirklichkeit der Aufführung eine große Bedeutung beimisst, stellt sich die Frage, welchen Platz die Darstellung einer fiktionalen Welt in den Inszenierungen Castorfs einnimmt. Diese Arbeit geht zunächst um den Platz des Performativen in zwei Theaterbearbeitungen von Dostojewskis Romanen Die Dämonen und Der Idiot für die Volksbühne Berlin. Da der Mensch sich mehr und mehr medialisiert und in diesem Kontext die reproduzierbaren Medien wie das Fernsehen oder das Kino, eine überwältigende und steigende Bedeutung in unserer Konsumgesellschaft haben, wird das Theater wie die anderen Kunstformen, verändert. Aus diesem Grund wurden die beiden Theaterbearbeitungen in andere Medien übertragen, in diesem Fall in Film und Literatur. Diese Arbeit beschreibt den Vorgang der „Re-repräsentation“, das heißt den Übergang von einem Medium zu einem anderen. Dabei werden die Verbindungen zwischen den verschiedenen Kunstwerken und die Motivation Castorfs analysiert, die Romane in Theaterstücke und die Theaterstücke in Filme sowie in Bücher zu übertragen. Darüber hinaus stellt das Video noch heute für einige Puristen – trotz einer steigenden Nutzung der Videotechnik auf der Theaterbühne – einen Fremdkörper dar, der von der Bühne verbannt werden muss. Er würde die Essenz des Theaters bedrohen: den performativen Charakter, der im gleichzeitigen Zusammentreffen von Akteuren und Zuschauern in einem gleichen Raum besteht. Allerdings können die Live-Videoübertragungen den performativen Charakter des Theaters teilweise bewahren, da sie das Publikum beeinflussen können; und umgekehrt. In dieser Arbeit wird durch die Analyse des Stückes Der Idiot von Castorf gezeigt dass die Kameras und ihr Live-Übertragungssystem das wesentliche Element der Theateraufführung ersetzen können: die Schauspieler.

The transfer of an artistic work from the literary medium to the filmic medium presents technical, personal, social and political factors for consideration which are capable of revealing important information about the times in which both the literary work and the film work were created. In a Russian context, where both literature and film have played roles of central cultural importance, the study of this interaction can be particularly fruitful. The first chapter of this dissertation considers the theoretical aspects of adaptation, namely fidelity to the original work and questions of metaphor and narrative structure. After examining these issues in a general context, Chapter 1 then views them in the light of specific stages of Russian cinematic history. The remaining chapters of this dissertation consider selected post-revolutionary Soviet and Russian filmic adaptations of the works of Nikolai Gogol', Fedor Dostoevskii and Anton Chekhov in chronological order. Analysis of both text and film is undertaken in order to demonstrate the complexity of literary and extra-literary factors involved in adaptation. The works of Gogol' have provided film makers with the challenge of finding "adequate" filmic equivalents to this writer's narrative devices, particularly his use of skaz [oral folk narration]. Dostoevskii's works have proven to be a stumbling block for film makers, both in terms of their ideological acceptability, and their exploration of complex psychological and religious issues. The adaptations of Chekhov's works have provided cinema with diverse subject matter that reflects the various stages and developments of Russian cinematic history, from pure fabula borrowing to an emphasis on mood and atmosphere. The interdisciplinary approach of this dissertation strives to show both the on-going relevancy of nineteenth-century Russian literature to modern culture, and the cinema's ability to present vastly differing interpretive possibilities of the literary cano

Comme la représentation théâtrale est une forme d’art fugitive qui, en raison de son caractère performatif, possède son propre monde fictionnel, la question de l’oposition entre représentation et réalité occupe une place centrale dans les études théâtrales. Ainsi, les œuvres scèniques d’un metteur en scène comme Frank Castorf représentent des objets d’analyse particulièrement appropriés. Parce que Castorf met d’abord l’accent sur le moment présent et la réalité de la représentation théâtrale, il est légitime de se demander quelle est la part qu’occupe la représentation d’un monde fictionel dans ses spectacles. Ce travail vise précisément à identifier l’importance qu’accorde Castorf à la performativité dans deux adaptations théâtrales des romans de Dostoïevski Les démons et l’Idiot. Comme notre société donne une place grandissante aux médias reproductibles tels que la télévision et le cinéma, et que l’être humain tend toujours davantage à se méditiaser lui-même, le théâtre comme toutes les autres formes d’art s’en trouve transformé. C’est dans cette optique que ces deux adaptations théâtrales ont donné lieu à d’autres manifestations artistiques, soit deux films et deux livres. Cet ouvrage retrace également le processus de re-représentation, c’est-à-dire du passage d’un média à un autre, dans le but d’analyser l’interrelation entre ces œuvres ainsi que de comprendre les raisons qui ont poussé le metteur en scène et son théâtre, la Volksbühne Berlin, à transposer d’abord des romans en spectacle de théâtre pour ensuite en faire des films et des livres. De plus, malgré son utilisation croissante au théâtre, la vidéo représente encore pour certains puristes un envahisseur à bannir. Elle introduirait la perte de l’essence du théâtre : le caractère performatif, qui consiste en une rencontre du public et des acteurs dans un même espace-temps. Par contre, les images vidéo-projetées en direct peuvent conserver une part de performativité puisqu’elles sont susceptibles d’influer sur le spectateur, et inversement. En prenant comme exemple l’Idiot de Frank Castorf, ce travail montre comment les caméras et leur dispositif de transmission en direct ont la capacité de se substituer aux principaux objets du spectacle théâtral : les acteurs. / As a theatre performance is a volatile piece of art, as it has a performative character, and therefore possesses its own fictional world, the two concepts “representation” and “reality” are of meaning in theater studies. In this context, the works of the Berliner theater director Frank Castorf represent particularly rich research objects. Because Castorf give a lot of value to the present and the reality of the performance, it is to ask: what role does the representation of a fictional world play in the productions of Castorf? This work aims to first identify how important the performativity for Castorf in two theater adaptations of Dostoevsky's novels is for the stage, Die Dämonen und Der Idiot. Since man mediates his own phenomenon more and more and since in this context, the reproducible media like television or cinema has an overwhelming and increasing importance in our consumer society, the theater, like other art forms, has changed. For this reason, the two theatrical adaptations were transferred to other media, that is, in films and books. This work describes the process of "re-representation", i.e. the transition from one medium to another. Here will be analyzed the connections between the various works of art and the motivations of the Berliner director and his theater, The Volksbühne Berlin, to “repurpose” the novels in plays and plays in movies and books. Moreover, despite their increasing integration in theater, video projections are still seen by certain number of puristas as invaders to be proscribed because of their threat to theatre’s essence: performativity as the encounter between actors and an audience in the same space, at the same time. However, live video-projection images can maintain a performative nature since they are likely to generate mutual influences between themselves and the members of the audience. By analyzing Frank Castorf’s Der Idiot, this thesis shows how cameras and their transmission devices have the capacity to be substituted to the main objects of the theatrical show: actors. / Da eine Theateraufführung ein flüchtiges Kunstwerk ist, weil sie einen performativen Charakter hat und deswegen ihre eigene fiktionale Welt besitzt, ist das Begriffspaar Darstellung/Wirklichkeit in der Theaterwissenschaft von Bedeutung. In diesem Zusammenhang stellen die Theaterwerke des Berliner Regisseurs Frank Castorf besonders komplexe Forschungsgegenstände dar. Weil Castorf der Gegenwart und der Wirklichkeit der Aufführung eine große Bedeutung beimisst, stellt sich die Frage, welchen Platz die Darstellung einer fiktionalen Welt in den Inszenierungen Castorfs einnimmt. Diese Arbeit geht zunächst um den Platz des Performativen in zwei Theaterbearbeitungen von Dostojewskis Romanen Die Dämonen und Der Idiot für die Volksbühne Berlin. Da der Mensch sich mehr und mehr medialisiert und in diesem Kontext die reproduzierbaren Medien wie das Fernsehen oder das Kino, eine überwältigende und steigende Bedeutung in unserer Konsumgesellschaft haben, wird das Theater wie die anderen Kunstformen, verändert. Aus diesem Grund wurden die beiden Theaterbearbeitungen in andere Medien übertragen, in diesem Fall in Film und Literatur. Diese Arbeit beschreibt den Vorgang der „Re-repräsentation“, das heißt den Übergang von einem Medium zu einem anderen. Dabei werden die Verbindungen zwischen den verschiedenen Kunstwerken und die Motivation Castorfs analysiert, die Romane in Theaterstücke und die Theaterstücke in Filme sowie in Bücher zu übertragen. Darüber hinaus stellt das Video noch heute für einige Puristen – trotz einer steigenden Nutzung der Videotechnik auf der Theaterbühne – einen Fremdkörper dar, der von der Bühne verbannt werden muss. Er würde die Essenz des Theaters bedrohen: den performativen Charakter, der im gleichzeitigen Zusammentreffen von Akteuren und Zuschauern in einem gleichen Raum besteht. Allerdings können die Live-Videoübertragungen den performativen Charakter des Theaters teilweise bewahren, da sie das Publikum beeinflussen können; und umgekehrt. In dieser Arbeit wird durch die Analyse des Stückes Der Idiot von Castorf gezeigt dass die Kameras und ihr Live-Übertragungssystem das wesentliche Element der Theateraufführung ersetzen können: die Schauspieler.

Thesis (MA (English Studies))--University of Stellenbosch, 2009. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: As existent beings, we identify with the world through our thoughts and perceptions. Man is driven to seek meaning by the very complexities and contradictions of existence. As self-conscious beings, we cannot live without a sense of awareness and understanding. Creativity allows an individual to develop a unique understanding of the nature and destiny of man. This study draws attention to writers who were able to transcend their external environment and immerse themselves in a setting where man’s individuality is fundamental to living an authentic life. Camus, Dostoevsky and Kafka made every effort to live consciously and authentically. They believed that inwardness was not to be defined by an external, social setting, but rather through an intimacy of consciousness. This awareness and unveiling of being enables us to create meaning. These authors removed their social mantles and were willing to sacrifice acceptance in the pursuit of this cause. They believed that every man has a responsibility to live an individual and authentic life. This psychological and even physical isolation is not easy, however, and often causes much suffering. Using existentialism as a framework, this thesis will focus on solitariness, suffering and creativity, all of which point to the importance of individual consciousness rather than living a life of societal pressures and conformity. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: As lewende wesens identifiseer ons onsself met die wêreld deur middel van gedagtes en waarnemings. Die mens word gedryf deur die soeke na betekenis in die kompleksiteit en teenstellings van sy bestaan. As wesens met selfkennis kan ons nie leef met ‘n gebrek aan bewustheid en begrip nie. Kreatiwiteit laat die individu toe om ‘n unieke begrip van die aard en lot van die mens te ontwikkel. Hierdi verhandeling vestig die aandag op skrywers wat verby hul uiterlike omgewings kon uitreik en hulself kon indompel in ‘n mileu waar die mens se individualiteit grondliggend is om ‘n onvervalste lewe te lei. Camus, Dostoevsky en Kafka het alles in hul vermoë gedoen om bewustelik en suiwer te lewe. Hulle het geglo dat die innerlike nie gedefinieer kan word deur die uiterlike, sosiale omgewing nie, maar eerder deur ‘n intimiteit van bewustheid. Hierdie bewustheid en openbaring van bestaan laat ons toe om betekenis te skep. Hierdie skrywers het hul sosiale mantels afgewerp en was bereid om sosiale aanvaarbaarheid op te offer in hul strewe na hierdie doelwit. Hulle het geglo dat elke mens oor ‘n individuele en onvervalste lewe beskik. Die sielkundige en selfs fisieke afsondering is egter nooit maklik nie en het dikwels groot lyding tot gevolg. Met eksistensialisme as raamwerk sal hierdie tesis focus op afsondering, lyding en kreatiwiteit.

Este trabalho é uma continuação de minha dissertação de mestrado, na qual analisei as possíveis relações de contato entre Crime e Castigo, de Dostoiévski, e Angústia, de Graciliano Ramos. Aqui, pretendo dar continuidade aos pontos de contato entre esses escritores, mas usando a questão da modernidade como ponto comum entre os dois autores. Levando em consideração que, apesar da distância temporal que os separa, as questões da modernidade, como fator de desenvolvimento tecnológico, ou seja, como sinônimo de modernização, e suas consequências para a sociedade estão presentes na literatura de ambos os escritores. No romance de Dostoiévski, por exemplo, teremos várias inovações: o romance dialógico ou polifônico, ao invés do tradicional monológico; a fragmentação da narrativa, “desrespeitando”, muitas vezes, o tempo cronológico; uma maior preocupação com o social; e, principalmente, como decorrência desses fatores, o surgimento de um novo tipo de herói, cujos valores - ou a ausência destes – indicam a existência de uma nova estrutura social gerada pela modernidade e pelo capitalismo. Em consequência disso, as narrativas romanescas passam a apresentar anti-heróis, que oscilam entre o bem e o mal, sem ao menos saber o que de fato é o bem e o mal. Esses “anti-heróis”, como diz Paulo Honório de São Bernardo, podem realizar atos bons que causam prejuízos, mas também atos ruins que geram lucros. Essa nova realidade desconcertante faz com que a sociedade perca seus valores éticos e morais e volte-se para “o que realmente importa”: o dinheiro. Desse modo, conforme Jameson, é compreensível que modernidade e capitalismo sejam considerados sinônimos, pois é o dinheiro que “atribui” o valor ao indivíduo e, em sua ausência, esse “valor” é invalidado na sociedade moderna. Traçamos um panorama da modernidade e das obras de Graciliano Ramos e Dostoiévski antes de partirmos para a análise das obras escolhidas: São Bernardo e Os Demônios, respectivamente. Essas obras foram escolhidas devido a seus protagonistas representarem com precisão o perfil do “anti-herói” da modernidade: cometem “maldades” contra tudo e contra todos, inclusive contra eles mesmos. O destino trágico do herói da modernidade é a impossibilidade de ser feliz e de fazer os outros felizes, numa angustiante sucessão de infelicidades. / This work is the continuation of my master's dissertation, in which I analyzed the possible relations between Dostoyevsky's Crime and Punishment and Graciliano Ramos’s Anguish. My intention, here, is to further develop the points of contact between these two writers; however, the discussion will be carried out from the point of view of modernity, a common notion between both writers. Despite the chronological distance between them, the issues of modernity as technological development – that is, technology as a synonym for modernization – and its influence on society are present in the writing of both authors. Dostoyevsky’s novels, for instance, introduce several innovations: dialogism or polyphony in the place of the traditional monologic discourse; narrative fragmentation, often “breaking” the chronological order; greater concern for social issues; and, mainly as a result of these factors, the emergence of a new type of hero whose values – or the absence of values – point to a new social structure, created by modernity and capitalism. As a consequence, the romantic narratives begin to portray anti-heroes, who oscillate between good and evil unaware of what good and evil really mean. These “anti-heroes” – in the words of Paulo Honório, protagonist of Saint Bernard – may do good deeds that cause harm, but also wrongs that generate benefits. Such new unsettling reality causes society to deviate from its ethical and moral values and turn to “what really matters”: money. Thus, according to Jameson, it is obvious that modernity and capitalism be regarded as synonyms. It is money that “assigns” value to the individual and, in modern society, this “value” is considered null when there is no money. We provide an overview of modernity and the work of Graciliano Ramos and Dostoyevsky before analyzing the selected pieces: Saint Bernard and Demons, respectively. These literary works were selected due to the fact that their protagonists are an accurate portrayal of the “anti-hero” of modernity: they are cruel and mischievous towards everything and everyone, including themselves. The tragic destiny of the modern hero is the impossibility of being happy and making others happy. He is forever trapped in an anguishing succession of mishaps. / Este trabajo es una continuación de mi disertación de maestría, en la cual analicé las posibles relaciones de contacto entre Crimen y Castigo, de Dostoievski, y Angustia, de Graciliano Ramos. Aquí, pretendo dar continuidad a los puntos de contacto entre esos escritores, pero usando la cuestión de la modernidad como punto común entre los dos autores. Llevando en consideración que, a pesar de la distancia temporal que los separa, las cuestiones de la modernidad, como factor de desarrollo tecnológico, o sea, como sinónimo de modernización, y sus consecuencias para la sociedad están presentes en la literatura de ambos escritores. En el romance de Dostoievski, por ejemplo, tendremos varias innovaciones: el romance dialógico o polifónico, en vez del tradicional monológico; la fragmentación de la narrativa, “desrespetando”, muchas veces, el tiempo cronológico; una mayor preocupación con lo social; y, principalmente, como consecuencia de esos factores, el surgimiento de un nuevo tipo de héroe, cuyos valores -o su ausencia- indican la existencia de una nueva estructura social generada por la modernidad y por el capitalismo. En consecuencia de eso, las narrativas romanescas pasan a presentar antihéroes, que oscilan entre el bien y el mal, sin al menos saber qué de hecho es el bien y el mal. Esos “antihéroes”, como lo dice Paulo Honório de São Bernardo, pueden realizar actos buenos que causan perjuicios, pero también actos malos que generan lucros. Esa nueva realidad desconcertante hace que la sociedad pierda sus valores éticos y morales y vuelque hacia “lo que realmente importa”: el dinero. De ese modo, conforme Jameson, es comprensible que modernidad y capitalismo sean considerados sinónimos, pues es el dinero que “atribuye” el valor al individuo y, en su ausencia, ese “valor” es invalidado en la sociedad moderna. Trazamos un panorama de la modernidad y de las obras de Graciliano Ramos y Dostoievski antes de que partamos al análisis de las obras escogidas: São Bernardo y Los Demonios, respectivamente. Esas obras se escogieron debido a que sus protagonistas representen con precisión el perfil del “antihéroe” de la modernidad: cometen “maldades” contra todo y contra todos, inclusive contra ellos mismos. El destino trágico del héroe de la modernidad es la imposibilidad de ser feliz y de hacer a los otros felices, en una angustiante sucesión de infelicidades.

Este trabalho é uma continuação de minha dissertação de mestrado, na qual analisei as possíveis relações de contato entre Crime e Castigo, de Dostoiévski, e Angústia, de Graciliano Ramos. Aqui, pretendo dar continuidade aos pontos de contato entre esses escritores, mas usando a questão da modernidade como ponto comum entre os dois autores. Levando em consideração que, apesar da distância temporal que os separa, as questões da modernidade, como fator de desenvolvimento tecnológico, ou seja, como sinônimo de modernização, e suas consequências para a sociedade estão presentes na literatura de ambos os escritores. No romance de Dostoiévski, por exemplo, teremos várias inovações: o romance dialógico ou polifônico, ao invés do tradicional monológico; a fragmentação da narrativa, “desrespeitando”, muitas vezes, o tempo cronológico; uma maior preocupação com o social; e, principalmente, como decorrência desses fatores, o surgimento de um novo tipo de herói, cujos valores - ou a ausência destes – indicam a existência de uma nova estrutura social gerada pela modernidade e pelo capitalismo. Em consequência disso, as narrativas romanescas passam a apresentar anti-heróis, que oscilam entre o bem e o mal, sem ao menos saber o que de fato é o bem e o mal. Esses “anti-heróis”, como diz Paulo Honório de São Bernardo, podem realizar atos bons que causam prejuízos, mas também atos ruins que geram lucros. Essa nova realidade desconcertante faz com que a sociedade perca seus valores éticos e morais e volte-se para “o que realmente importa”: o dinheiro. Desse modo, conforme Jameson, é compreensível que modernidade e capitalismo sejam considerados sinônimos, pois é o dinheiro que “atribui” o valor ao indivíduo e, em sua ausência, esse “valor” é invalidado na sociedade moderna. Traçamos um panorama da modernidade e das obras de Graciliano Ramos e Dostoiévski antes de partirmos para a análise das obras escolhidas: São Bernardo e Os Demônios, respectivamente. Essas obras foram escolhidas devido a seus protagonistas representarem com precisão o perfil do “anti-herói” da modernidade: cometem “maldades” contra tudo e contra todos, inclusive contra eles mesmos. O destino trágico do herói da modernidade é a impossibilidade de ser feliz e de fazer os outros felizes, numa angustiante sucessão de infelicidades. / This work is the continuation of my master's dissertation, in which I analyzed the possible relations between Dostoyevsky's Crime and Punishment and Graciliano Ramos’s Anguish. My intention, here, is to further develop the points of contact between these two writers; however, the discussion will be carried out from the point of view of modernity, a common notion between both writers. Despite the chronological distance between them, the issues of modernity as technological development – that is, technology as a synonym for modernization – and its influence on society are present in the writing of both authors. Dostoyevsky’s novels, for instance, introduce several innovations: dialogism or polyphony in the place of the traditional monologic discourse; narrative fragmentation, often “breaking” the chronological order; greater concern for social issues; and, mainly as a result of these factors, the emergence of a new type of hero whose values – or the absence of values – point to a new social structure, created by modernity and capitalism. As a consequence, the romantic narratives begin to portray anti-heroes, who oscillate between good and evil unaware of what good and evil really mean. These “anti-heroes” – in the words of Paulo Honório, protagonist of Saint Bernard – may do good deeds that cause harm, but also wrongs that generate benefits. Such new unsettling reality causes society to deviate from its ethical and moral values and turn to “what really matters”: money. Thus, according to Jameson, it is obvious that modernity and capitalism be regarded as synonyms. It is money that “assigns” value to the individual and, in modern society, this “value” is considered null when there is no money. We provide an overview of modernity and the work of Graciliano Ramos and Dostoyevsky before analyzing the selected pieces: Saint Bernard and Demons, respectively. These literary works were selected due to the fact that their protagonists are an accurate portrayal of the “anti-hero” of modernity: they are cruel and mischievous towards everything and everyone, including themselves. The tragic destiny of the modern hero is the impossibility of being happy and making others happy. He is forever trapped in an anguishing succession of mishaps. / Este trabajo es una continuación de mi disertación de maestría, en la cual analicé las posibles relaciones de contacto entre Crimen y Castigo, de Dostoievski, y Angustia, de Graciliano Ramos. Aquí, pretendo dar continuidad a los puntos de contacto entre esos escritores, pero usando la cuestión de la modernidad como punto común entre los dos autores. Llevando en consideración que, a pesar de la distancia temporal que los separa, las cuestiones de la modernidad, como factor de desarrollo tecnológico, o sea, como sinónimo de modernización, y sus consecuencias para la sociedad están presentes en la literatura de ambos escritores. En el romance de Dostoievski, por ejemplo, tendremos varias innovaciones: el romance dialógico o polifónico, en vez del tradicional monológico; la fragmentación de la narrativa, “desrespetando”, muchas veces, el tiempo cronológico; una mayor preocupación con lo social; y, principalmente, como consecuencia de esos factores, el surgimiento de un nuevo tipo de héroe, cuyos valores -o su ausencia- indican la existencia de una nueva estructura social generada por la modernidad y por el capitalismo. En consecuencia de eso, las narrativas romanescas pasan a presentar antihéroes, que oscilan entre el bien y el mal, sin al menos saber qué de hecho es el bien y el mal. Esos “antihéroes”, como lo dice Paulo Honório de São Bernardo, pueden realizar actos buenos que causan perjuicios, pero también actos malos que generan lucros. Esa nueva realidad desconcertante hace que la sociedad pierda sus valores éticos y morales y vuelque hacia “lo que realmente importa”: el dinero. De ese modo, conforme Jameson, es comprensible que modernidad y capitalismo sean considerados sinónimos, pues es el dinero que “atribuye” el valor al individuo y, en su ausencia, ese “valor” es invalidado en la sociedad moderna. Trazamos un panorama de la modernidad y de las obras de Graciliano Ramos y Dostoievski antes de que partamos al análisis de las obras escogidas: São Bernardo y Los Demonios, respectivamente. Esas obras se escogieron debido a que sus protagonistas representen con precisión el perfil del “antihéroe” de la modernidad: cometen “maldades” contra todo y contra todos, inclusive contra ellos mismos. El destino trágico del héroe de la modernidad es la imposibilidad de ser feliz y de hacer a los otros felices, en una angustiante sucesión de infelicidades.

Este trabalho é uma continuação de minha dissertação de mestrado, na qual analisei as possíveis relações de contato entre Crime e Castigo, de Dostoiévski, e Angústia, de Graciliano Ramos. Aqui, pretendo dar continuidade aos pontos de contato entre esses escritores, mas usando a questão da modernidade como ponto comum entre os dois autores. Levando em consideração que, apesar da distância temporal que os separa, as questões da modernidade, como fator de desenvolvimento tecnológico, ou seja, como sinônimo de modernização, e suas consequências para a sociedade estão presentes na literatura de ambos os escritores. No romance de Dostoiévski, por exemplo, teremos várias inovações: o romance dialógico ou polifônico, ao invés do tradicional monológico; a fragmentação da narrativa, “desrespeitando”, muitas vezes, o tempo cronológico; uma maior preocupação com o social; e, principalmente, como decorrência desses fatores, o surgimento de um novo tipo de herói, cujos valores - ou a ausência destes – indicam a existência de uma nova estrutura social gerada pela modernidade e pelo capitalismo. Em consequência disso, as narrativas romanescas passam a apresentar anti-heróis, que oscilam entre o bem e o mal, sem ao menos saber o que de fato é o bem e o mal. Esses “anti-heróis”, como diz Paulo Honório de São Bernardo, podem realizar atos bons que causam prejuízos, mas também atos ruins que geram lucros. Essa nova realidade desconcertante faz com que a sociedade perca seus valores éticos e morais e volte-se para “o que realmente importa”: o dinheiro. Desse modo, conforme Jameson, é compreensível que modernidade e capitalismo sejam considerados sinônimos, pois é o dinheiro que “atribui” o valor ao indivíduo e, em sua ausência, esse “valor” é invalidado na sociedade moderna. Traçamos um panorama da modernidade e das obras de Graciliano Ramos e Dostoiévski antes de partirmos para a análise das obras escolhidas: São Bernardo e Os Demônios, respectivamente. Essas obras foram escolhidas devido a seus protagonistas representarem com precisão o perfil do “anti-herói” da modernidade: cometem “maldades” contra tudo e contra todos, inclusive contra eles mesmos. O destino trágico do herói da modernidade é a impossibilidade de ser feliz e de fazer os outros felizes, numa angustiante sucessão de infelicidades. / This work is the continuation of my master's dissertation, in which I analyzed the possible relations between Dostoyevsky's Crime and Punishment and Graciliano Ramos’s Anguish. My intention, here, is to further develop the points of contact between these two writers; however, the discussion will be carried out from the point of view of modernity, a common notion between both writers. Despite the chronological distance between them, the issues of modernity as technological development – that is, technology as a synonym for modernization – and its influence on society are present in the writing of both authors. Dostoyevsky’s novels, for instance, introduce several innovations: dialogism or polyphony in the place of the traditional monologic discourse; narrative fragmentation, often “breaking” the chronological order; greater concern for social issues; and, mainly as a result of these factors, the emergence of a new type of hero whose values – or the absence of values – point to a new social structure, created by modernity and capitalism. As a consequence, the romantic narratives begin to portray anti-heroes, who oscillate between good and evil unaware of what good and evil really mean. These “anti-heroes” – in the words of Paulo Honório, protagonist of Saint Bernard – may do good deeds that cause harm, but also wrongs that generate benefits. Such new unsettling reality causes society to deviate from its ethical and moral values and turn to “what really matters”: money. Thus, according to Jameson, it is obvious that modernity and capitalism be regarded as synonyms. It is money that “assigns” value to the individual and, in modern society, this “value” is considered null when there is no money. We provide an overview of modernity and the work of Graciliano Ramos and Dostoyevsky before analyzing the selected pieces: Saint Bernard and Demons, respectively. These literary works were selected due to the fact that their protagonists are an accurate portrayal of the “anti-hero” of modernity: they are cruel and mischievous towards everything and everyone, including themselves. The tragic destiny of the modern hero is the impossibility of being happy and making others happy. He is forever trapped in an anguishing succession of mishaps. / Este trabajo es una continuación de mi disertación de maestría, en la cual analicé las posibles relaciones de contacto entre Crimen y Castigo, de Dostoievski, y Angustia, de Graciliano Ramos. Aquí, pretendo dar continuidad a los puntos de contacto entre esos escritores, pero usando la cuestión de la modernidad como punto común entre los dos autores. Llevando en consideración que, a pesar de la distancia temporal que los separa, las cuestiones de la modernidad, como factor de desarrollo tecnológico, o sea, como sinónimo de modernización, y sus consecuencias para la sociedad están presentes en la literatura de ambos escritores. En el romance de Dostoievski, por ejemplo, tendremos varias innovaciones: el romance dialógico o polifónico, en vez del tradicional monológico; la fragmentación de la narrativa, “desrespetando”, muchas veces, el tiempo cronológico; una mayor preocupación con lo social; y, principalmente, como consecuencia de esos factores, el surgimiento de un nuevo tipo de héroe, cuyos valores -o su ausencia- indican la existencia de una nueva estructura social generada por la modernidad y por el capitalismo. En consecuencia de eso, las narrativas romanescas pasan a presentar antihéroes, que oscilan entre el bien y el mal, sin al menos saber qué de hecho es el bien y el mal. Esos “antihéroes”, como lo dice Paulo Honório de São Bernardo, pueden realizar actos buenos que causan perjuicios, pero también actos malos que generan lucros. Esa nueva realidad desconcertante hace que la sociedad pierda sus valores éticos y morales y vuelque hacia “lo que realmente importa”: el dinero. De ese modo, conforme Jameson, es comprensible que modernidad y capitalismo sean considerados sinónimos, pues es el dinero que “atribuye” el valor al individuo y, en su ausencia, ese “valor” es invalidado en la sociedad moderna. Trazamos un panorama de la modernidad y de las obras de Graciliano Ramos y Dostoievski antes de que partamos al análisis de las obras escogidas: São Bernardo y Los Demonios, respectivamente. Esas obras se escogieron debido a que sus protagonistas representen con precisión el perfil del “antihéroe” de la modernidad: cometen “maldades” contra todo y contra todos, inclusive contra ellos mismos. El destino trágico del héroe de la modernidad es la imposibilidad de ser feliz y de hacer a los otros felices, en una angustiante sucesión de infelicidades.

(in English): This thesis focuses on a review of the criminal terminology in the Czech translations of five novels by F. M. Dostoevsky. The paper covers the following novels: 1) Crime and Punishment; 2) Demons; 3) Notes from the House of the Dead; 4) The Brothers Karamazov and 5) The Idiot. The main objective of the manuscript is to analyze the legal terms in these novels and to ensure accurate translations into the Czech language from a legal and linguistic perspective. These findings may be of significant assistance in future translations of these Dostoyevsky's novels into Czech. Analýza trestněprávní terminologie v českých překladech vybraných románů F. M. Dostojevského Analysis of the Criminal Law Terminology in the Czech Translations of Selected Dostoyevsky's Novels ALLA TYMOFEYEVA Vedoucí práce: PhDr. Stanislav Rubáš, Ph.D. Praha 2017

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